Differentiarum, sive de Proprietate Sermonum, Liber

APPENDIX XXIII. THE BOOK OF DIFFERENCES, OR ON THE PROPRIETY OF SPEECH. From the Paris Edition. Between polliceri and promittere there is this difference: that we promise (promittimus) when asked, we pledge (pollicemur) of our own accord. i. Between nullus and nemo there is this difference: that nullus can be referred to anything, nemo to a person; and nemo is as if to say "ne homo" (not a man). Between intus and intro there is this difference: that I go (eo) intro, I am (sum) intus; I am foris, I go foras. Between lustra, with a long u, and lustra, with a short u, there is this difference: that lustra are fixed periods of time; lustra are lairs of wild beasts, or haunts of base men. Between servitium and servitus there is this difference: that servitus is the necessity of serving, servitium we call the service of servants. Between terminus and finis there is this difference: that terminus is not set without a hand; finis can be understood of speech, or of will, or of anything whatsoever. Between asper and ferox there is this difference: that asper is for a time, ferox from birth.

Between *flumen* and *fluvius*, *amnis* and *torrens* there is this difference: that *flumen* is so called from *fluere* (to flow); *fluvius* is from temporary water; *amnis* is named from *amoenitas* (pleasantness), as if *amoenus*; *torrens* (torrent), which swells in winter and is filled by rains and snows. Between *innocentem* and *innoxium* there is this difference: that *innocens* (innocent) is understood by the holiness of character, *innocuus* (harmless) is one who has no will to harm. Between *generosum* and *nobilem* there is this difference: that *generosus* (well-born) is born, *nobilis* (noble) is made by wealth. I. Between *regium* and *regem* there is this difference: that *regius* (royal) is a boy of royal blood, *rex* (king) is one who rules a kingdom. Between *dementem* and *amentem* there is this difference: that *amens* (mad) is wholly lacking in mind, *demens* (insane) retains a part; so called as if from a diminished part of the mind. Between *pecudes* and *pecora* there is this difference: that by *pecudes* (flocks) we understand only sheep, but *pecora* (herds) is a mixture of all animals. Between *monstrare* and *demonstrare* there is this difference: that we *monstramus* (show) once, we *demonstramus* (demonstrate) more often.

Between *dives* and *honestus*, *pecuniosus*, *beatus*, *locuples* and *opulentus* there is this difference: that *dives* is said of gold and silver; *honestus* of character; *pecuniosus* is said from *pecora* (cattle); *beatus* from the mind; *locuples* from being full of *loculi* (money-boxes); *opulentus*, full of all things, as if eminent in *opes* (wealth). Between *palam* and *coram* there is this difference: that *palam* denotes the presence of men; *coram* desires to take a person. Between *albus* and *candidus* there is this difference: that *albus* is natural, *candidus* is made by care. Between *sensus* and *intellectus* there is this difference: that *sensus* is natural, *intellectus* is from an obscure matter. Between *exanimus* and *inanimus* there is this difference: that *exanimus* is deprived of life, *inanimus* never has a soul. Between *imber*, *nimbus* and *pluvia* there is this difference: that *imber* descends from a Greek meaning, as if *umbrosum* (shadowy), which falls with the greatest force and descends quickly; *pluvia* is what clouds express by the impulse of winds, whence *pluere* (to rain) is said, as when tears are expressed by forced grief; *nimbus* also bursts forth, so that it occupies a smaller part of the sky, leaving the greater part clear.

Between *sanguis*, *cruor*, and *sanies* there is this difference: that *sanguis* is said when it is within the body, so called because it *sanctiat* (preserves) us, that is, contains us; *cruor* (gore) is so called because it compels one to *corruere* (fall down); *sanies* (ichor) is putrid matter of the body. Between *terga* and *tergora* there is this difference: that *terga* (backs) are of men, *tergora* (hides) of animals. In the singular number we say *tergum* for men, *tergus* for an animal. 23. Between *mi* and *mihi* there is this difference: that *mi* is a simple pronoun, *mihi* a compound; or *mi* is a word of emotion, and always requires the vocative case. Between *tum* and *tunc* there is this difference: that *tum* has the meaning of order, *tunc* of time. Between *ira* and *iracundia* there is this difference: that *ira* (anger) is for a time, *iracundia* (wrathfulness) is contained in the heart. Between *noctu* and *nocte* there is this difference: that *noctu* is said just as *interdiu* (by day), and signifies some part of the night; but by *nocte* we understand the whole night. Between *fari*, *loqui*, *sermocinari*, and *narrare* there is this difference: that we *fari* (speak) when we say something eloquently; we *loqui* (talk) by nature; we *sermocinari* (discourse) when we contend in speech against someone; we *narrare* (narrate) learnedly.

Between *tenere*, *urere*, and *accipere* there is this difference: that we *hold* (tenemus) those things which are in our power; we *take* (sumimus) things placed before us; we *receive* (accipimus) things given. Between *aspicere*, *suspicere*, *inspicere*, *prospicere*, *despicere*, *intueri*, *videre*, *spectare*, and *visere* there is this difference: that we *look at* (aspicimus) by chance; we *look up at* (suspicimus) toward a higher part, or we *venerate*; we *look into* (inspicimus) when about to judge; we *look forward to* (prospicimus) things which are far off; we *look down upon* (despicimus) a lower part, or something contemptible; we *gaze at* (intuemur) with purpose; we *see* (videmus) by nature; we *visit* (visimus) things we have experienced. Between *furor* and *insania* there is this difference: that *furor* is a vice of the moment; *insania* is perpetual. Between *alius* and *alter* there is this difference: that *alius* refers to many, *alter* to two. Between *scelus* and *facinus* there is this difference: that *scelus* is a crime, *facinus* is also correctly used in praise; Sallust speaks of a *good deed* (bonum facinus). Between *dona* and *munera* there is this difference: that *dona* are given to God, *munera* are bestowed upon men. And *munera* by which men, that is, soldiers, perform their duty, are indeed called *munia*.

Between *vestis* and *vestimentum* there is this difference: that *vestes* are said of women’s garments, *vestimenta* of men’s. Between *humidum* and *uvidum* there is this difference: that *humidum* is completely soaked through, *uvidum* that which has reached only to the middle. Between *vetus* and *vetustum* there is this difference: that *vetus* is compared with *novus*, while on the contrary *vetustum* is referred to antiquity. Between *terrere* and *deterrere* there is this difference: that he who *terret* compels fear, he who *deterret* forbids perseverance. Between *solus*, *unus*, *solitarius*, and *unicus* there is this difference: that *solus* is he who is abandoned by the others; *unus* acts as the beginning of many; *solitarius* is he who always lives without others; *unicus* is held to be alone because of the lack of others. Between *aphaeresis*, *syncope*, and *apocope* there is this difference: that *aphaeresis* alone is made from the first part of a word, drawing off letters and syllables, as in *Si genus humanum, et mortalia TEMNITIS arma*, for *contemnitis*. *Syncope* loses the middle, as in *Apparent rari nantes*, for *natantes*. *Apocope* is from the last, as in *domus luxu instruitur*, that is, *luxuria*.

Between *soloecismus* and *barbarismus* there is this difference: that *soloecismus* occurs in sense, *barbarismus* in sound. Between *relictum* and *desertum* there is this difference: that we leave behind (*relinquimus*) willingly, we abandon (*deserimus*) unwillingly. Between *misereri* and *miserari* there is this difference: that we pity (*miseremur*) at the same time, and we grieve for someone’s misfortune, and we help the sufferer; *miserari* is only to console, and to be within the feeling of grief. Between *orare* and *precari* there is this difference: that *orare* is so called because it is said to be the speech of the mouth, and he who prays (*orat*) also entreats (*precatur*), he who asks (*rogat*) beseeches (*deprecatur*); not everyone who entreats (*precatur*) prays (*orat*), because even the unskilled descend to entreaties (*preces*). Between *nescire* and *ignorare* there is this difference: that he who does not know (*nescit*) lacks all knowledge, he who is ignorant (*ignorat*) does not know something. Between *legatus* and *orator* there is this difference: that a *legatus* is chosen for an office by a city, and is sacrosanct; an *orator*, sent to speak, so that by the speech of his mouth he may set forth what he seeks.

Between *tardus*, *piger*, *iners*, and *segnis* there is this difference: that *tardus* is said of one who wastes time; *iners*, without skill, incapable of any office; *piger*, in all things like a sick man; *segnis*, moved away from heat. Between *natus* and *gnatus* there is this difference: that *natus* is derived particularly from the verb *nasci* (to be born), *gnatus* is said of a son from generation. Between *infamis* and *famosus* there is this difference: that *famosus* is used both in a good sense and in a bad, *infamis* only in a bad sense. Between *juventus* and *juventa* there is this difference: *juventus* is said of a multitude of young men, *juventa* of the age of one person, or also of the goddess of youth. Between *decus* and *decor* there is this difference: that *decus* refers to virtue, *decor* to the body. Between *supra* and *super* there is this difference: that *super* is what stands above, *supra* what has something underlying it. Between *metus*, *timor*, and *pavor* there is this difference: that *metus* looks to future things, *timor* is a sudden consternation of the mind, *pavor* however is a movement; hence we also say *pavida jumenta* (frightened beasts of burden).

Between *omnes*, *cunctos*, and *universos* there is this difference: that *omnes* are those of whom mention is made, *cuncti* are those who are everywhere, *universi* are those who are turned into one place. Between *unda* and *aqua* there is this difference: that *unda* is copious water, *aqua* is natural water. Between *tacere* and *silere* there is this difference: that one who stops speaking is *silere*, and one who has not begun is *tacere*. Between *auxilium*, *praesidium*, and *subsidium* there is this difference: that *auxilium* is sent to those laboring, *praesidium* is prepared, *subsidium* is kept so that when necessity demands it may be given. Between *insequi* and *consequi* there is this difference: that we *consequimur* a friend who precedes, we *insequimur* an enemy. Between *principium* and *initium* there is this difference: that *principium* is of the whole body, *initium* is like the first part. Between *simulare* and *dissimulare* there is this difference: that we *simulamus* what we do not know and deny we do not know, we *dissimulamus* what we know. Between *simul* and *simitum* there is this difference: that *simul* means that one thing shines equally, as: We read *simul*, we write *simul*. *Simitum* receives the meaning of gain, as if *simulitum*.

Between *scelestus*, *sceleratus*, and *scelerosus* there is this difference: that *sceleratus* is contaminated by his own crime or that of another; *scelestus* is a contriver of crimes; *scelerosus* is like one who is insidious, dangerous, or wholly given over to harshness of mind or spirit. Between *reliqui* and *ceteri* there is this difference: that we call *reliqui* those left over from all; *ceteri* those whom we do not know. Between *redibidus* spelled with the letter *d*, and *redivivus* spelled with the letter *v*, there is this difference: that *redibidus* is what is born again, *redivivus* what comes back to life. Between *patrius* and *paternus* there is this difference: that *patrius* comes from *patria* (fatherland), *paternus* from *pater* (father). Between *pomeria* and *pomaria* there is this difference: that we call *pomaria* orchards, like olive groves and fig groves; *pometa* are like apple orchards, fig orchards, and olive orchards. Between *aeger* and *aegrotus* there is this difference: that *aeger* refers to the mind, *aegrotus* to the body. Between *prior venit* and *ante venit* there is this difference: that *prior* refers to rank, *ante* to time.

Between *inficere* and *officere* there is this difference: that *officit* is one who harms, *inficit* is one who dyes wool or other things. Between *contingere*, *accidere*, and *evenire* there is this difference: that *contingunt* good things, *accidunt* bad things, *eveniunt* both. Between *grates* and *gratias* there is this difference: that we offer *grates*, we give *gratias*. Between *oleas* and *olivas* there is this difference: we call the fruit itself *olivas*, from which oil is made. We call the trees *oleas*, from which olive groves are made. 72. Between *nixus* and *nisus* there is this difference: that *nixus* refers to the body, *nisus* to the mind, that is, an effort. Between *nefandum* and *nefarium* there is this difference: that *nefarius* is understood from past actions, *nefandus* in the deed itself. Between *nutrit* and *nutricat* there is this difference: that a woman *nutrit* (nourishes), a nurse *nutricat* (suckles). Between *maritimum* and *marinum* there is this difference: that *maritimum* is near the sea, *marinum* from the sea itself. Between *laniat*, *lacerat*, and *lancinat* there is this difference: that *laniat* is one who tears limb from limb, *lacerat* is one who deprives limbs of their parts, *lancinat* is one who uselessly rends limbs.

77. Between *patulum* and *patens* there is this difference: that *patulum* cannot be closed or covered; *patens* is that which, when it has been opened, can be closed again. Between *gutta* and *stilla* there is this difference: that *stilla* falls, *gutta* stands. Between *delictum* and *peccatum* there is this difference: that we commit a *delictum* when we do not fulfill wholesome commands; we commit a *peccatum* when we presume to do those things which are commanded not to be done. Between *incola*, *accola*, and *advena* there is this difference: that an *incola* is one who cultivates his own land in which he was born; an *accola* is one who cultivates land not of his own birth, but foreign; an *advena* is one who comes from his own land into a foreign one. Between *hesternum* and *externum* there is this difference: that *hesternum* is said from *hesterna dies* (yesterday), while *externum* means foreign. For many of the unskilled say *externa dies*, which is not admitted. Between *baltea* and *balteos* there is this difference: that by *baltea* we signify the straps themselves, but we say *balteos* for the belts. Between *bibere* and *ebibere* there is this difference: that one who *bibit* (drinks) leaves something in the cup; one who *ebibit* (drinks up) drains it entirely.

Between *geminatum*, *iunctum*, and *duplicatum*—what the difference is, although we have briefly set it forth for those who understand acutely, yet let us teach it more fully with examples. *Geminatum* is that which consists of two similar things, as Cicero: *gemina audacia* (twin audacity). *Iunctum* is that which consists of two equal things, as Virgil: *iungentur iam gryphes equi* (now griffins will be yoked to horses). *Duplicatum* is when one thing is placed twice: *ingens ad terram duplicato poplite* (huge, with knee doubled to the ground). Between *decline* and *declive* there is this difference: *declinus* (declining) is said of the sun, *declivus* (sloping) of a place. So too is *accline* and *acclive* to be understood: *acclinus* (leaning) of a man, *acclivus* (sloping) of a bed; from this *acclivum* (a slope) is said. Between *commentarii* and *commentaria* there is this difference: *commentarii* are books, *commentaria* are volumes. Between *primum* (first) and *priorem* (former) there is this difference: *primus* is among many, *prior* among two. So too you will observe between *postremum* (last) and *posteriorem* (latter). Between *disertum* (eloquent) and *desertum* (deserted) there is this difference: *disertus* is said of an orator, *desertus* of something abandoned.

Between *dilator* and *delator* there is this difference: that a *delator* is one who brings a charge for accusation, a *dilator* one who delays for the purpose of putting off. Between *adversam* and *adversus* there is this difference: that *adversum* is the adversary, *adversus* the changer. Between *pauperies* and *paupertas* there is this difference: that *pauperies* is a loss, *paupertas* is one who has nothing. Between *exprobrare* and *obprobrare* there is this difference: that one *exprobrat* who casts up a personal fault, one *obprobrat* who hurls a curse. Between *accersire* and *arcessire* there is this difference: that one *accersit* who summons, one *arcessit* who accuses. Between *acervum* and *acerbum* there is this difference: that *acervus* is a heap, *acerbus* is unripe and harsh. Between *labrum* and *labium* there is this difference: that *labrum* is said of the upper lip, *labium* of the lower. Between *toga*, *tuga*, *tuba* and *tufa* there is this difference: that *toga* is a garment, *tuga* is that by which water is channeled, *tuba* is that which is sounded, *tufa* is a stone which is formed from coagulated water, which we call *lufum*.

Between *comosum* and *comatum* there is this difference: that *comosus* is said from the use of hair; *comatus* from nature, as in *comata Gallia*. Between *certo* and *certim* there is this difference: that *certo* is from *certus*, and *certius* from *certe*. Between *caecitudinem* and *caecitatem* there is this difference: that *caecitas* itself is said as if it were a way of truth, and a calamity; *caecitudo* however is an affection, as *lippitudo* is said. Between *castimoniam* and *castitatem* there is this difference: that *castimonia* is said as if it were *caeremonia*; *castitas* however pertains only to the body. Between *copias* and *copiam* there is this difference: that *copias* we say with the meaning of armies, *copiam* however of things. Between *circum*, *circa* and *circiter* there is this difference: that *circum* refers to time, *circa* to place, *circiter* to number. Between *fidum* and *fidelem* there is this difference: a servant is called *fidus*, a friend *fidelis*. Between *illius similis* and *illi similis* there is this difference: that *illius similis* is in character, *illi similis* in countenance.

Between *flemma* and *plemma* there is this difference: that *flemma* is when the legs abound with blood, *plemma* when calloused furrows arise in the hands or feet. Between *mammas* and *ubera* there is this difference: that *mammas* are taken for humans, *ubera* for cattle. Between *avena* without aspiration, and *habena* with aspiration there is this difference: that *avena* is a sterile shoot, *habenae* are the reins of beasts of burden. Between *donum* and *munus* there is this difference: that *donum* is of the giver, *munus* of the receiver. The former from *dare* (to give), the latter from *munire* (to fortify). Between *arguere* and *coarguere* there is this difference: that *coarguere* is to restrain or check; *arguere* is to show or reveal, as Virgil: "Fear reveals degenerate spirits." Hence also *argumenta* are so called because they show the cause. Between *afficere* and *adficere* there is this difference: that we are *afficimur* (affected) by honor, we are *adficimur* (affected) by death or injury. Between *advocatum*, *invocatum* and *evocatum* there is this difference: that an *advocatus* is called to give patronage, an *invocatus* is called to provide aid, an *evocatus* is called to render service.

12. Between *illuvies* and *ingluvies* there is this difference: that *illuvies* is of filth, *ingluvies* of the belly. The former is said from not washing, the latter from swallowing. Between *commonere*, *admonere* and *monere* there is this difference: that we *commonemus* past things, we *admonemus* present things, we *monemus* future things. Between *temeritas* and *audacia* there is this difference: that *temeritas* is said without counsel, *audacia* after counsel. Between *velocitas* and *celeritas* there is this difference: that *velocitas* is said of feet and bodies, *celeritas* of minds and deeds. Between *vivus* and *vivens* there is this difference: that *vivus* is said of a living being, *vivens* of one about to die. Between *nasci* and *enasci* there is this difference: that *nascitur* what falls from the womb, *enascitur* what arises from earth or water. Between *abducere*, *perducere* and *deducere* there is this difference: that we are *abducti* from a dishonorable thing, we are *perducti* to studies, we are *deducti* to honor. Between *eluxit* and *illuxit* there is this difference: that *eluxit* is one who has disposed of mud, *illuxit* is one who has appeared with light.

Between *nuntiare*, *denuntiare*, and *renuntiare*, and *annuntiare* there is this difference: that *nuntiatur* from afar, *denuntiatur* in the present, *annuntiatur* concerning the future, *renuntiatur* concerning excusing and rejecting. Between *conscribere*, *exscribere*, *transcribere*, *inscribere*, *ascribere*, *describere* there is this difference: that *conscribere* is to write together at once; *exscribere*, to transfer writings; *transcribere*, when our right passes to another; *inscribere*, of accusation; *ascribere*, of assignment; *describere*, of description, or of order. But *scribere* is an imperfect verb. Between *exstruere*, *instruere*, *astruere*, *construere*, *struere* there is this difference: that *exstruere* is to build up high; *instruere*, a battle line or an action; *astruere*, to affirm; *construere*, to join together by building; *struere*, to underbuild the remaining things placed above. Between *consuescere*, *insuescere* and *assuescere* there is this difference: that we become accustomed to good things, we become accustomed to bad things, we become accustomed to both.

Between *fungi* and *defungi* there is this difference: that *fungi* is to act, *defungi* is to complete. Whence also the dead are called *defuncti*, because they have completed the course of this life. Between *adolescere*, *inolescere*, and *exsolescere* there is this difference: that *adolescere* is increase; *inolescere*, co-increase; *exsolescere*, vanishing. Between *deportare*, *apportare*, *comportare*, and *exportare* there is this difference: that *deportare* and *apportare* is to bring something; *comportare*, to bring together into one place; *exportare*, to take away. Between *temperantia*, *temperatio*, and *temperies* there is this difference: that *temperantia* is of minds; *temperatio*, of things; *temperies*, of breezes. Between *recipere* and *suscipere* there is this difference: that we *recipimus* when asked, we *suscipimus* willingly. Between *arundo* and *hirundo* there is this difference: that *arundo* is a reed, *hirundo* is a bird, which is accustomed to cling to beams. Between *spirare* and *exspirare* there is this difference: that *spirare* is to live; *exspirare*, to die.

Between *pertinacia* and *constantia* there is this difference: that *pertinacia* is said of an evil thing, *constantia* of a good one. Between *consequi* and *assequi* there is this difference: that we follow with our feet, we attain by study. Between *lætari* and *gratulari* there is this difference: that we rejoice over our own things, we congratulate over the good things of friends. Between *herbosum* and *herbidum* there is this difference: that *herbidum* is a place in which there is grass, even if it has been accustomed to be dry; *herbosum* is one which easily generates grass, even if for a time it is dry. And we correctly call a drink *aquata* which receives water from elsewhere; for a place *aquosum* is one which pours forth water from itself. So also we call a drink *meraca* and wine *merosum*. Between *subter* and *subtus* there is this difference: that *subter* is pressed and trampled upon by some superior thing; *subtus* is what, being set lower, is not touched. Between *sinum* and *gremium* there is this difference: that we call *sinus* the receptacle of a flowing garment; *gremium* indeed, the secret part of a girded garment.

Between *largitas* and *largitio* there is this difference: that *largitas* is of humanity, *largitio* of ambition. Between *muliebre* and *mulierarium* there is this difference: that *muliebre* is said of something made by women; *mulierarium*, of something arranged by women and carried out through men. Between *diligere* and *deligere* there is this difference: that *diligere* is of affection, *deligere* of judgment; whence an army is ordered to be *deligi* (chosen). Between *commodare* and *mutuo dare* there is this difference: that we *commodamus* (lend) to a friend for a time a horse, a garment, a slave, and the like; but we *mutuo damus* (give as a loan) money, wheat, wine, or other things. Between *ligare* and *legare* there is this difference: that one *ligat* (binds) with a chain, one *legat* (bequeaths) by testament. Between *loqui*, *obloqui*, *alloqui* and *eloqui* there is this difference: that *loqui* is of a man, *obloqui* of a detractor, who objects or opposes; *alloqui* of one exhorting or judging; *eloqui* is of honor. Between *percussum* and *perculsum* there is this difference: that we say *percussum* (struck) of the body, *perculsum* (stricken) of the mind.

Between *fremor* and *fremitus* there is this difference: that *fremor* is the murmur of men, *fremitus* of beasts. Between *flavus*, *furvus*, and *fulvus* there is this difference: that *flavus* we call red, as in *flava caesaries* (fair hair); *furvus*, black; *fulvus* blackish-red, as in *fulvum leonem* (tawny lion). Between *postulare* and *poscere* there is this difference: that what is *postulatum* is asked incautiously, what is *positum* is demanded shamelessly. Between *frixum* and *frictum* there is this difference: that *frixum* is derived from *frigus* (cold), *frictum* from *frigere* (to rub). Between *diutinum* and *diuturnum* there is this difference: that *diutinum* is what has been for a long time, *diuturnum* what has lasted for a long time. Between *delitum* and *inlitum* there is this difference: that *delitum* is because it is sudden, *inlitum* indeed smeared. Between *damnum*, *dispendium*, and *detrimentum* there is this difference: that *damnum* is where something is diminished; *dispendium*, where weight is absent; *detrimentum*, which is named from *terere* (to wear away). Between *dominium* and *dominatum* there is this difference: that *dominium* is understood as what is of private right, *dominatum* however of command.

Between *nixus* and *nisus* there is this difference: that *nixus* is on the knees; *nisus* from *nitendo*, that is, striving. Between *nubere*, *enubere*, and *denubere* there is this difference: that a woman *nubit* to a fellow citizen, *enubit* to a foreigner; *denubit* who comes into the hand of her husband. Between *noxa* and *noxia* there is this difference: that *noxa* is the penalty, *noxia* the fault itself. Between *necessitas* and *necessitudo* there is this difference: that *necessitas* signifies force; *necessitudo* a bond of blood or of spirit. Between *clausum* and *obturatum* there is this difference: that *clausum* is said from *claustris* and *clavibus* (bolts and keys), but *obturatum* is of the stopping of openings, as ears are *obturalæ* (stopped), not *clausae* (closed). Between *operire*, *adoperire*, and *inoperire* there is this difference: that we *operimus* with a lid, we *adoperimus* doors, we *inoperimus* when we place something over something lying. Between *pometa* and *pomeria* there is this difference: that *pometa* are where apples are born, *pomaria* where they are stored. Between *palma* and *palmum* there is this difference: that *palma* is on the body, *palmum* in measurement. Moreover, this measurement is from the first thumb up to the smallest finger.

Between *poplites* and *suffragines* there is this difference: that *poplites* are of men, *suffragines* of animals. Between *praeparare* and *apparare* there is this difference: that he *praeparat* who prepares by repeating his desire, he *apparat* who adds to what is prepared, that is, prepares to accuse. Between *stipulatio*, *restipulatio*, *astipulatio*, and *constipulatio* there is this difference: that *stipulatio* has a certain meaning, *restipulatio* if something has been done which was agreed; *astipulatio* of the same money, so that either may be able to reclaim it; *constipulatio*, a joint *restipulatio*, if anything has been done with wrongful intent. Between *saturitas* and *satietas* there is this difference: that *saturitas* is said of food only, *satietas* of other things. Between *vicinia* and *vicinitas* there is this difference: that *vicinia* is said to be of place, *vicinitas* of persons. Between *fluctuo* and *fluctuor* there is this difference: that *fluctuo* I waver in mind, as if I drive a wave, and flow hither and thither; *fluctuor*, I am borne by a wave, and therefore the sea *fluctuat*, the ship *fluctuatur*; thus also between *luxurio* and *luxurior* is to be distinguished.

Between *potero* and *potuero* there is this difference: that *potero* is of one who promises with certainty, *potuero* of one who hesitates. Between *Hispanus* and *Hispaniensis* there is this difference: that *Hispanus* is said of one by nation, *Hispaniensis*, *Massiliensis*, and the like. Between *escendere*, *ascendere*, *conscendere* there is this difference: that we *ascendimus* to high places, or a place of honor; we *escendimus* when we climb something higher; we *conscendimus* when we ride a horse. Between *uterque* and *utrique* there is this difference: that *uterque* is said in the singular, *utrique* in the plural. Between *pigneror* and *pignero* there is this difference: that *pigneror* your mind; *pignero*, when I take your pledge. Between *mereo* and *mereor* there is this difference: that *mereo* is for the merit of service, *mereor* for the work of reward; likewise *rumano*, *ruminor*, and the like. Between *laurus* and *laurea* there is this difference: that *laurus* is the tree itself; *laurea*, the crown or branch. Between *caeruleum* and *caerulum* there is this difference: that we say *caerulum*, like gold; *caeruleum* from *caerulo*, like silver.

Between *imum* and *infimum* there is this difference: that *imus* refers to place, *infimus* to rank. Between *curam* and *diligentiam* there is this difference: that *cura* involves torment for one who is moved; *diligentia* is the management of affairs. Between *vires* and *virtutes* there is this difference: that *vires* are of the body, *virtutes* of the mind. Between *animam*, *animum*, *spiritum* and *mentem* there is this difference: that *anima* is that by which we live, *animus* that by which we are ruled, *spiritus* that by which we breathe, *mens* a quality which can refer to good or evil in thought. Between *grave* and *ponderosum* there is this difference: that *grave* is according to the quality of the bearer, *ponderosum* by nature. Between *ultorem* and *vindicem* there is this difference: that we avenge an injury received, we vindicate so that we do not receive one. Between *fallacem* and *pellacem* there is this difference: that *fallax* is called unfaithful; *pellax* in words, from *appellando*, that is, speaking for oneself. Between *immolare* and *mactare* there is this difference: that *immolare* is said when the sacrificial cake has been placed on the head; *mactatum* is this deed, as if more increased.

Between *hostia* and *victima* there is this difference: that *hostia* is used when a leader sets out against the enemy; *victima*, when the enemy has been bound, as Ovid says in the *Fasti*: "The *victima* that fell by the victorious right hand is so called." *Hostia* takes its name from enemies (*hostes*) who have been subdued. Between *eruere* and *diruere* there is this difference: that hidden things are *eruta* (dug up), while prominent things are *diruta* (torn down). Between *nequidquam* and *nequaquam* there is this difference: that *nequidquam* means "in vain," while *nequaquam* means "not at all." Between *iter* and *itiner* there is this difference: that *iter* is the way by which we go, while *itiner* is said of a pathless place. Between *proprium* and *propius* there is this difference: that *proprium* pertains to ownership, while *propius* pertains to place. Between *vereor* and *revereor* there is this difference: that *vereor* refers to fear, while *revereor* refers to reverence. Between *liberi* and *filii* there is this difference: that *filii* are used in the masculine gender, while *liberi* are used in both sexes; and that *filii* can be used in the singular number. For no one who has one son says, "I have one *liberum*." Likewise, *filii* are understood indiscriminately of every condition, both freeborn and slave; *liberi* are not said except of the freeborn.

Between *dulce* and *suave* there is this difference: that *dulce* can be the same as *suave*, but not necessarily *suave* as *dulce*. For we call honey *dulce*, and vinegar *suave*, which is not *dulce*. Between *bellum* and *avellum* there is this difference: that *bellum* is said of wars between foreign peoples, *avellum* among citizens, because the people are torn (*avellantur*) into two parts. Between *exemplum* and *similitudo* there is this difference: that *exemplum* is history, *similitudo* is approval. Between *divinatio* and *divinitas* there is this difference: that *divinitas* refers to the power of the deity, *divinatio* makes men prescient of future things. Between *vis* and *virtus* there is this difference: that *virtus* is to encourage, *vis* is injury. Between *rogus* and *pyra* there is this difference: that *rogus* is prepared for the dead, *pyra* for sacrifices. 19.). Between *arma*, *armamenta*, and *tela* there is this difference: that *arma* are those by which our bodies are covered in war; *armamenta*, those of ships; *tela* are missiles, such as javelins.

Between *vir* and *masculus* there is this difference: that *vir* is understood by species, *masculus* by gender, and that *vir* is understood in three ways: by nature, by virtue, and by marriage; *masculus* is also separated from man, as in animals. Between *profugus*, *exsul*, *relegatus*, and *transfuga* there is this difference: that *profugus* is one who has left voluntarily, as it were; *exsul*, one who is condemned and expelled; *relegatus*, one for a time; *transfuga*, one who goes over to the enemy. Between *altum* and *excelsum* there is this difference: that we understand *altum* as raised both in the upper part and as deposited in the interior; *excelsum*, only in the higher parts. Between *vis* and *vires* there is this difference: that *vis* consists of force and injury, *vires* are referred to the good and strength of the body; thus *vis* makes violence, *vires* something vicious. Between *saevus* and *crudelis* there is this difference: that *saevus* is about words, *crudelis* is shown by blood. Between *bellum*, *acies*, *proelium*, and *pugna* there is this difference: that *bellum* is called the whole conflict, *acies* is drawn up, *proelium* is joined, *pugna* is waged, and that *acies* is both of iron and of eyes.

Between *passus* and *expertus* there is this difference: that we suffer by will, we experience by necessity. Between *genus* and *gens* there is this difference: that *genus* pertains to both men and beasts; *gens* pertains to a gathering of many, and descends from one head. For we say "the *gens* of the Gauls." Between *terra*, *tellus*, and *humus* there is this difference: that *terra* is the third part of the world; *tellus* is a goddess; *humus* is said of a place of burial, from *humando* (burying). Between *moenia* and *aedificia* there is this difference: that *moenia* are of public works, *aedificia* of private ones. Between *omne* and *totum* there is this difference: that *omne* consists of number, *totum* is said of parts. Between *ulcus*, *vulnus*, and *plaga* there is this difference: that *ulcus* comes out by itself, *vulnus* by iron; *plaga* can be a flat blow; thus *ulcus* is lighter, *vulnus* of gravity; *plagae* are also called blows. Between *sic* and *ita* there is this difference: that *sic* indeed shows examples, *ita* is referred to reason.

Between *duo* and *ambo* there is this difference: that *duo* are counted, *ambo* are gathered together. Between *paret* and *apparet* there is this difference: that *paret* is by command; *apparet* is to those seeing. Between *pullum* and *nigrum* there is this difference: that *pullum* is the opposite of white, *nigrum* we take as a color. Between *putat*, *æstimat*, *opinatur*, *arbitratur* and *suspicatur* there is this difference: that *putat* is one who doubts; *æstimat* is one who, judging what has been done, speaks; *opinatur* is one who believes an opinion, either his own or another's; *arbitratur* is one who imposes a limit on a matter; *suspicatur* is one who foresees the form of a hidden thing. Between *prohibere* and *inhibere* there is this difference: that *prohibere* is not to have by law; *inhibere* is said by force. And what we inhibit by law we prohibit by command. Between *ostentum*, *prodigium* and *monstrum* there is this difference: that *ostentum* shows itself new without a solid body, and to eyes and ears; *prodigium* indeed is what is perceived in solid bodies, as a comet or star in the sky, and light by night, darkness by day; *monstrum* indeed comes forth known against nature, as a serpent with feet, or with four wings.

Between *conticuere*, *obticuere*, and *reticuere* there is this difference: that he who *conticuit* produced silence on all sides, as the ancients (Virgil, *Aeneid* III.718): *conticuit tandem*, and with this end he rested; *obticuit*, he who left no hope; *reticuit*, he who ended responses with silence. Between *sepulcrum*, *tumulus*, *monumentum*, and *bustum* there is this difference: that *sepulcrum* is a grove in which bodies are buried, and it is named from *sepelire* (to bury); *tumulus*, which covers ashes; *monumentum*, which surrounds the sepulcher, named from *munitiones* (fortifications); *bustum*, in which bones are, as if *bene ustum* (well burned). Between *astra* and *sidera* there is this difference: that *astra* can exist without *sidus*, and *astra* are fixed in the sky; *sidera* move. Between *deripere* and *diripere* there is this difference: that we *deripimus* when we snatch from a higher part to lower parts; we *diripimus* when we tear apart and separate into different parts. Between *causa* and *ratio* there is this difference: that *causa* has many species, *ratio* very few, and that what is effected by *ratio*, *causa* is desired.

Between *Italus* and *Italicus* there is this difference: that *Italus* is said of a person, *Italicus* of a bow; thus the former refers to a person, the latter to a thing. Between *devium*, *invium*, *avium*, and *pervium* there is this difference: that *invium* is without a road, secret; *devium*, a deserted place; *avium*, off the road; *pervium*, through which one may pass. Between *dextera* and *dextra* there is this difference: that some have thought without cause that the letter *e* is redundant, following ancient custom: as in *reprendo* and *reprehendo*; as in *vemens* and *vehemens*: thus *dextram manum* (the right hand) and *dexteram prosperam partem* (the favorable side) are said. Between *leges* and *jura* there is this difference: that *jura* are derived from honorable custom, *leges* from those things which we do as approved among us; and *jura* are so called from the justice of each individual, *leges* because they are read. Between *invidus* and *invidiosus* there is this difference: that *invidus* is one who envies another; *invidiosus*, one who is envied. Between *protinus* and *protenus* there is this difference: that *protinus* means immediately, at once, an adverb of time; *protenus*, as it were *porrotenus* (extended forward).

Between *demitto* and *dimitto* there is this difference: that *demittit* is said of one who sends down from above, *dimittit* of one who sends into many parts. Between *altaria* and *arae* there is this difference: that *altaria* are placed for God, *arae* also for the dead. Between *dimidium* and *dimidiatum* there is this difference: that *dimidium* can signify a part, unless you supply the whole noun; without that, *dimidiatum* is, as when a full hour is called an hour, the whole noun, as it were the whole, without which an hour cannot be half; therefore, either *dimidiata hora* or *dimidium horae* is *dimidium*: *dimidiatum*, however, is a diminished portion. Between *fiducia* and *confidentia* there is this difference: that *confidentia* is with the vice of rashness; *fiduciam* one has if he lives with honorable constancy. Between *legionem* and *dilectum* there is this difference: that *legio* is so called from the fact that strong men are chosen, and a soldier belongs to the military; *dilecta* are those whom we love most, such as sons or the father's kindred.

Between *assidue* and *quotidie* there is this difference: that *assidue* is of diligence, but *quotidie* of perseverance. Between *moeret* and *meretur* there is this difference: that he who *moeret* is sad; but *meretur* is he who, by the judgment of another, expects a reward equal to the benefit. Between *plenitudinem* and *plenitatem* there is this difference: that *plenitudo* is of the body, *plenitas* of a thing; thus we say *plenitudinem* of obese men, *plenitatem* of any kind of thing. Between *precor* and *deprecor* there is this difference: that we *precamur* God, we *deprecamur* men. Between *fortunam* and *felicitatem* there is this difference: that *fortuna* is not, *felicitas* is the wealth of a man. Between *tueor* and *tuor* there is this difference: that *tuor* means I guard; *tueor*, I see. Between *ludibrium* and *ludicrum* there is this difference: that *ludibrium* is at another’s injury; but *ludicrum* is that which we enjoy without anyone’s injury. Between *stillam* and *guttam* there is this difference: that *gutta* is of rains; *stilla*, of a bucket, or of vinegar.

Between *fidus* and *fidelis* there is this difference: that *fidus* is also said of a friend; *fidelis* of a servant. Between *cognoscimus* and *agnoscimus* there is this difference: that we *agnoscimus* those we know, we *cognoscimus* what we have never seen. Between *clypeum* and *clupeum* there is this difference: that *clypeum* is a shield; *clupeum* is that on which images are placed. Between *germanus* and *frater* there is this difference: that *germanus* is a true brother from father and mother; *frater* is from a different father or mother. Between *mersare* and *mergere* there is this difference: that *mersare* is to plunge often, *mergere* once. Between *agere causam* and *dicere* there is this difference: that the advocate *agit*, the defendant *dicit*. Between *eminus* and *cominus* there is this difference: that *eminus* is from afar, *cominus* at close quarters. Between *capere* and *decipere* there is this difference: that we *capimus* those who deserve it, we *decipimus* the innocent; or we *capimus* by skill, we *decipimus* by treachery. Between *consilium* and *sententiam* there is this difference: that *consilium* is deliberation; *sententia* is the pronouncement of the deliberation.

Between *fors* and *fortuna* there is this difference: that *fors* is chance, *fortuna* is a gift; as some say, *fors* is like death. Between *voluntas* and *voluptas* there is this difference: that *voluntas* is of the mind, *voluptas* of the body. Between *interea* and *interdum* there is this difference: that *interdum* is an adverb of time, *interea* of the cause of a thing. Between *initium* and *principium* there is this difference: that *principium* of any whole work is one, as it were the first head of the work; *initium*, which we more frequently understand, and we take as many times as the person is changed, as it were within another thing: and *principium* once, *initium* more often. *Principium*: "Arma virumque cano." *Initium*: "Musa, mihi causas memora." Yet there are found *principia* which by their nature lack something, and have *initia* in species, as: "At regina gravi iamdudum saucia cura." And: "Sic fatur lacrimans, classique immittit habenas." Between *meditari* and *velitari* there is this difference: that we *meditamur* in the mind, we *velitamur* with the body.

Between men and beasts there is this difference: that beasts serve the belly, men serve reason.