Differentiarum Sive De Proprietate Sermonum Libri Duo

THE TWO BOOKS OF THE DIFFERENCES, OR ON THE PROPERTY OF WORDS, OF SAINT ISIDORE, BISHOP OF HISPALIS.

Preface.

ISIDORE TO THE READER, GREETING.

I The ancients earnestly studied to distinguish the differences of words, investigating something more subtly between word and word. But the gentile poets, compelled by the necessity of meter, confounded the properties of words. And so from these the custom has prevailed that many things are received indiscriminately from authors, which, although they seem similar, are yet distinguished from one another by a certain proper origin. Concerning these, among the Latins Cato was the first to write; after his example, I myself have partly published a very few, partly drawn them from the books of authors, and have noted them down for you, reader, for your delight.

BOOK ONE.

ON THE DIFFERENCES OF WORDS.

On the letter A.

Between apt and useful. Apt relates to time, useful to perpetuity.

Between friend and associate. A friend consists in affection, an associate in fact, because he consists in partnership.

Between Arrogant and Abrogant. Arrogant is the proud man, abrogant the humble man. The arrogant man assumes confidence for himself; the abrogant man takes it away, that is, denies it.

Between the Avaricious and the Covetous. The avaricious man is one who does not use his own possessions; the covetous man is one who desires what belongs to others.

Between Love and Lust. It is one thing, says Cato, Philip, love, and far another thing lust. The one came in at once when the other withdrew: the one good, the other evil. Others have more truly called love both good and evil, but lust always evil. The difference of love is fourfold. For there is just love, pious love, cruel love, obscene love. Just love is that of wives, pious love that of children, cruel love is against nature, as that of Pasiphae, obscene love is that of harlots.

Between Auspices and Auguries. Auspices are those which are begun and come of their own accord; auguries are those which are consulted and follow after.

Between Argument and Argumentation. An argument is what at the beginning of a book briefly lays open the cause; argumentation is what in disputation gives credibility to assertions.

Between Art and artifice. Art is a liberal nature, while artifice consists in what is done by the hands.

Between the Hidden and the Concealed. The concealed is what is hidden by anyone's skill, while the hidden is what is naturally put away. For it is "put away," not "consumed." Hence also "to sew" is spoken of, when things snatched and open are woven together. Furthermore, "occult" is said from "occluding," that is, closing. But "arcane" is from "ark" or from "keeping off," because all are kept off from it, that is, forbidden. Hence also "citadels" are spoken of, by which enemies are kept off. Hence also "threshing floor," because it keeps off the thief. Hence also "bow," because it keeps off the adversary.

Between Before and Previously. "Before" signifies place and person, "previously" only time.

Between reclined and lay back, this is the difference: the guest reclined at the table, the master lay back in the bedchamber, the sick man lay down. For to recline is with the whole body, to lie at table is on the elbow.

Between abscedit and discedit. Abscedit is what withdraws itself from some part, while what is divided from the middle, discedit.

Between Adultery and fornication. For adultery is to desire another's wife, while fornication is not the adulteration of the marriage covenant, but to fornicate with other unmarried persons.

Between altum and excelsum, sublime and arduum. Altum is from the upper part and the lower, excelsum from the upper part only; sublime is excelsum with some dignity; arduum is excelsum with some difficulty. Likewise a deep well, a high wall. You will see the highest things in the lofty, the lowest things in the deep.

Between adnisum, innixum, subnixum and obnixum. Adnisum, one striving toward something; innixum, one leaning upon something, as if someone leans upon a staff, or upon a column. Subnixum, however, is one furnished with some counsel, or supported from every side; obnixum, however, is one obstinate, or persevering.

Between alloqui, obloqui, eloqui. Alloqui is of one exhorting and commanding, obloqui of one disparaging, eloqui of an orator.

Between amare and diligere Cicero thinks there is a difference, and he uses the words often enough in such a way as to distinguish them, setting amare for loving ardently and diligere for loving more lightly, as in the letter to Brutus: "You, indeed," he says, "love me, and love us; or, if that is greater, hold us dear." And again: "So then you will do thus: either you will love me, or, what satisfies me, you will hold me dear." Likewise to Dolabella: "For was there anyone who thought that anything could be added to the love I had toward you? So much has been added that now at last I seem to love you, whereas before I held you dear." Others have said that amare is naturally implanted in us, but diligere comes by choice.

Between abicere and proicere there is a difference. For what is held in contempt and neglected is abicere, but what is utterly outside of safety and alien to blessedness, that is proicere. Proicere, moreover, is said as it were porro abicere, to cast forth.

Between arguere and coarguere. Coarguere is to restrain and check; arguere is sometimes to accuse, sometimes to show or make plain something. Virgil: "Fear has overturned their degenerate minds." Hence also argumenta are so called, which show a cause.

Between adlidere and elidere: adlidere is to strike nearby, elidere to strike from afar.

Between aspicere and respicere, etc. We aspicimus things before us, respicimus things behind; suspicimus upward, despicimus downward, inspicimus inward, prospicimus far off, conspicimus all around. Likewise we aspicimus things present, respicimus things past, prospicimus things to come. But one who turns to the right and the left looks at these things, he does not aspicere them. It should be noted, however, that when we say despicere, we sometimes mean to inquire diligently. Likewise circuminspicere, which is to seek what you cannot discern; for circuminspicere is to seek.

Between attendere and intendere: attendere is to look at, intendere truly is to accuse, either to murder or to injury. Yet it is very rarely used in a good sense.

Between audire and exaudire: for both good and bad are heard, but only the good are exaudire.

Between adolescere and inolescere. Adolescere belongs to growth, inolescere to becoming accustomed.

Between annuntiatur, nuntiatur, and denuntiatur. Annuntiatur concerns the future, nuntiatur concerns something far off; denuntiatur concerns the present, renuntiatur concerns excusing and repudiating.

Between advocatur, invocatur, and evocatur. Advocatur is one who is about to give patronage, invocatur one who is about to bring aid, evocatur one who is about to provide obedience.

Between abducitur, perducitur, and deducitur. Someone is abducted to a dishonorable matter, led through to studies, led down to honor.

Between adficimur and afficimur. We are affected with honor, we are affected with injury.

Between adversum te and adversus te. Adversum te is an adversary, adversus te is an imitator.

Between alterum and alium. Alter is said of two, alius of many. For alter cannot exist without one.

Between apparet and paret. Apparet is he who is seen, paret is he who obeys—not by the rule of reason, but by the grace of the intellect for discerning.

Between aditus and ostium. Aditus is that by which one is admitted; ostium is that by which one is shut out.

Between arbiter and judex. An arbiter is appointed by will; a judex by law.

Between advena and convena. Advenae are those coming from one place; convenae from diverse places.

Between album and candidum. Album is by nature, candidum by study or care; therefore we call hairs albi and wax candida. Likewise candidum is that which is suffused with a certain shining light, while album is what is established as being near to dawn.

Between albens and albescens. We call albens one who is already whitened, albescens one who is beginning.

Between animus and anima the difference is this: that animus belongs to counsel, anima to life. The latter is always the same; the former is changed according to feeling. Likewise the ancients separated mens from animus: mens, that one may know; animus, truly, that one may will or be able to learn. Moreover, sometimes animus is also put for strength.

Between alvus and venter, and uterus. Alvus is the inner receptacle of food, into which filth flows down, as Sallust says: Feigning that his alvus was being purged. Venter is the outward appearance of that same part, as Juvenal says: The venter of Montanus too is present. Uterus, however, is properly that of a pregnant woman. But this too is varied by the poets for the sake of meter.

Between arma and tela. Arma are those things by which we are defended; tela are those things which we throw. Likewise, arma are the equipment of war, armamenta of ships.

Between alluvium and colluvium. Alluvium is the wearing away of riverbanks by water; colluvium, however, is a gathering of filth, which is produced by a great flow.

Between aquatum and aquosum. We rightly call a drink aquata, and a place that pours forth water from itself aquosa. So too we call a drink meraca, but wine merosum.

Between apricum and opacum. Apricum is the opposite of opacum, as it were open to the sky, or to the sun without the shudder of cold. And apricum is, as it were, without wind and cold. Hence some think Africa is so called, as if Aprica. By contrast, opacum is dense and shady, just as amoenum is. Amoena, moreover, are so called because they are loved.

Between acerbum and acervum. Acervus is written with two letters and signifies a mass. Acerbus, written with an s, signifies unripe.

Between arbos and arbor. Arbor is sometimes even without fruit; arbos, however, only if fruit-bearing. Similarly silva and nemus. Silva is sometimes fruitful; nemus, however, is understood as shady and unfruitful trees.

Between acerbum and immaturum. Acerbum is something placed far from maturity; immaturum, however, is near to maturity.

Between avena and habena. Avena, with the letter v, is a plant. Habena, with the letter l, is a strap. They think habena is so called from habendo, because by it we hold horses, that is, we keep them, whence also horses are called habiles.

Between aves and volucres. We call aves those things that fly through the air on light wings; but volucres we call not only birds, but also four-footed animals running with excessive swiftness, yet with an addition, for example a swift horse, a swift tigress. As that line of Pacuvius: the four-horse team runs with swift axle. For arrows too are called volucres, because feathers are glued to them. For without an addition it means only a winged creature.

Between anguis, serpens, and draco. In the sea there are angues, on land serpentes, in the temple dracones. As Virgil says: angues through the tranquil deep; and a little later: serpens, each entwining. Likewise: dracones to the highest shrines.

Between aureum and auratum. Aureum is made of gold; auratum is made of another material and covered with a mixture of gold.

Between animalia and animantia. Animalia are those that have a soul; animantia pertain only to minds.

Between Austrum and ostrum. Austrum means the wind; ostrum, however, means purple.

Between annuit and abnuit. Annuit means consents; abnuit means denies.

Between aes and es. Aes is the material of metal; es, however, is a verb.

Between animus and anima. Anima is without distinction; animus, however, is varied; for by animus we are wise, by anima we live.

Between ad and at. Ad is a preposition; at, however, is a conjunction.

Between adjuro and abjuro. Adjuro I entreat; abjuro I deny.

Between apud and penes. What I say is apud you then, when I signify some part or the whole. For penes signifies possession; apud, however, signifies as it were the body and the book, not possession. But we say, apud you I have my silver, not penes you; things therefore that are returned, I have apud you; things that are possessed, I have penes you.

Between amburere and comburere, and sepelire. Comburere is to give to the fire; amburere is to burn up from both sides; urere is to burn into thoroughly with fire, and to feel the fire all the way to the marrow. Sepelire is to enclose in a tomb, or to cover the body and bones with earth. Hence Virgil (Aeneid 10): "The body is covered, buried in the earth"; or (Aeneid 9): "If any fortune shall forbid this, let him bear funeral offerings to the absent one, and honor him with a tomb."

Between audax and temerarius. The audax one does not fear; the temerarius one does not reckon the danger.

Between ad forum ire and in forum ire. By ad forum is signified some place toward which we go; by in forum, into the forum itself.

Between Afer and Africus, and Africanus. We call Afer a citizen, Africus a wind, Africanus a merchant.

Between agnoscere and cognoscere. We agnoscere those known to us; we cognoscere those unknown.

Between auferre, adimere, and eripere. We auferre a thing that we gave; we adimere a right; we eripere what we snatch from someone else.

Between agere causam and dicere: what the patron does is agere causam, the defendant dicere.

Between aqua and unda: unda is always in motion, whereas aqua is standing still. Further, imbres are of the clouds, Iatices of the springs. For latex is properly the liquid of a spring, and it is so called because it lies hidden in the veins of the earth.

Between aequora and maria: aequora are not only waters but also plains, so called from their levelness; mare, however, is only a gathering of waters.

Between aevum and saeculum: aevum shows only time, whereas saeculum means perpetuity and time. Hence we also say in saecula saeculorum.

Between aequum and justum: the justus is, as it were, from the law, as if keeping the jus; the aequus, however, is one who is just according to nature. For justus is named from living by the jus, that is, from doing according to what is jus.

Between aeger and aegrotus: aeger is properly one sorrowful in mind, for one is called aegrotus in body. Accordingly, aeger means both sad and ill, whereas aegrotus, or aegrotans, means only ill.

Between aegritudo and aegrotatio: just as aegrotatio has its name in the body, so aegritudo has it in the mind, not separated from grief. Grief, then, is aegritudo, that is, the cause effecting aegritudo in the mind, as aegrotatio in the body.

On the letter B.

Between benignitas and bonitas. The Stoics define it thus: that benignitas is a virtue exposed for doing good, gentle, soothing, sweet in address, inviting to the familiarity of all good people; but bonitas is indeed ready to do good and to furnish what is asked; yet it does not know how to be pleasant in company, and to invite all by its sweetness.

Between beatus and felix. The beatus is so only for himself; the felix, also for others, as is that Virgilian line: "May you be felix, and may you bring back whatever of our labor." But he is called felix through whom felicitas is both given and received, as a felix time, a felix place, a felix outcome.

Between beatus, honestus, fortunatus. Beatus in mind, honestus in morals, fortunatus in substance.

Between bibere and potare. Bibere is a matter of nature; potare, of luxury.

Between balineum and balneum. In everyday prose we say balineum; in verse, balneum.

Between barba and barbas. We call the beards of men barbae, but those of beasts or of plants barbae. And the beards of men, as in Virgil: the beards and hoary chins of the Roman king.

Between bucina and bucinum. The bucina is the trumpet by which the signal is given against the enemy; the bucinum is the sound itself, the ringing of the blast.

Between bellum and proelium. War is declared; battle is waged. For in war there is not immediately a battle; but in a battle there is immediately also war. Hence among the ancients the trumpet was the signal of battle, the horn of war. Likewise, war is the whole, that is, the entire conflict, as the Jugurthine, the civil, the Punic. A pugna is of a single day; a proelium is a part of a pugna, although a pugna is sometimes also between two men, and without iron, whence it is also named from the fist.

Between balsamum and opobalsamum. Balsamum is the tree itself; opobalsamum is the juice collected from the tree. For opos means juice. The test of balsam, moreover, as Pliny says, is this: that if it is carried into the sun, and is not corrupted, it burns the hand of the bearer.

Between Bassos and bassus. Bassos are proper names; bassus, however, is a common noun.

Between barbarism and solecism. A barbarism occurs in a single word; a solecism in several.

On the letter C.

Between caelum and aether the distinction is this: that not only that star-bearing region, but also this air, is called caelum. Aether, however, is the higher part of the sky, in which the stars are set. Indeed aether is the upper fiery air, while aethra is the light and splendor of aether.

Between cras and crastinum. Cras pertains to time; crastinum to the work of that same time.

Between chastity and continence the difference is this: that chastity is the incorruption of the body, while continence is the renunciation of sexual intercourse after corruption. The first of these belongs to happiness—not to have what you should fear; the second belongs to virtue—to lay low the enemy of lust, by which you have so often been conquered and cast down. To yield in the first is a matter of humility; in the second, of patience. The first of these belongs to happiness, not to know at all what you will afterward wish to be freed from; the second, however, belongs to virtue, to despise a vice that you know full well. Others understand continence as pertaining to marriages, and chastity as in virgins. Likewise some take chastity as in the mind, but virginity as in the body. That, however, is true chastity which is polluted neither in body nor in mind.

Between clamor and clangor. Clamor is of rational beings; clangor of irrational beings, such as geese or trumpets.

Between criminator and criminans, the author Orbilius thinks there is this difference: that a criminator is one who brings a charge against another and does so rather often, whereas a criminans is one who brings a charge and does so even with suspicion, whereby someone seems more guilty. As Afranius says: I am not, he says, so criminosa as you, viper, I never learned to gannire at a master's ear.

Between callidus and versutus. Callidus is crafty in disputing; versutus, however, is one whose mind in the conduct of affairs is easily turned to any fraud. Therefore we call callidus not, in place of astutus, lautus, but in place of astute doctus; versutus, however, from the fact that he quickly turns his mind. Whence also Plautus: You are more versutus than a potter's wheel.

Between cura and sollicitudo. Sollicitudo is moderate and temperable; cura, however, is without moderation; whence also cura is so called because it burns the heart.

Between cognition and recognition, some make this distinction: that cognition is of things we did not know before and are afterward permitted to know, while recognition is of things we knew previously, then ceased to know, and afterward remember.

Between commentarium and commentum, and commaticum. A commentarium is a book; a commentum, or commentated volume, that is, something gathered together from various books, namely from the Old and New Testament.

Between coram and palam. Coram refers to a person, for we say "in the presence of him" (coram illo); palam lacks a person, because it signifies the same thing that all know. Therefore coram refers to a specific person, palam to all.

Between cavum and cavatum. Cavum is by nature; cavatum is by hand.

Between circiter, circa, and circum. Circiter is to be referred to number; circa to place and time; circum, however, to all around. Therefore we say that we have gone around the world (circumisse nos orbem), not circasse.

Between "circumpedes" and "antepedes." "Circumpedes" are the services of slaves, "antepedes" of friends.

Between "contingit," "obtingit," "evenit," and "accidit." "Contingit" is by outcome, "obtingit" by lot, "accidit" by chance, "evenit" for evil or good.

Between "corripere," "objurgare," and "castigare." We "corripimus" with blows, "objurgamus" with a word, "castigamus" with words, slaughters, and blows.

Between "cupere" and "ambire." "Cupere" is to seek earthly gain or any desires of the world in vain; "ambire" truly is to seek the ranks of the good or the orders of powers.

Between "cantare" and "canere." "Cantare" is only to resound with voices or with shouting; "canere" however is sometimes to modulate, sometimes to prophesy, that is, to foretell future things.

Between "conscribere," "exscribere," and the rest. Placidus says: "Conscribere" is to write many things at once. "Exscribere" is to transfer what has been written elsewhere; "transcribere," when our right passes to another. "Inscribere" is of accusation, "ascribere" of assignment. "Describere" is of declaration [or of jurisdiction, or of order].

Between "construere" and "destruere." "Construere" is to build, "destruere" truly to exterminate.

Between "commodare" and "accommodare." "Commodare" is to lend something, "accommodare" truly to fit.

Between "consuere" and "suere," or "assuere." "Consuere" of garments, "suere" of books, "assuere" of leathers.

Between "consequimur" and "assequimur." "Consequimur" with the feet, "assequimur" by study.

Between "consuescimus," "assuescimus," "insuescimus." "Consuescimus" good things, "insuescimus" evil things, "assuescimus" both.

Between "capio" and "capesso." "Capio" at some time, "capesso" frequently.

Between "cuncti" and "omnes." "Cuncti" are all, if only they are joined together, and do something at the same time. Otherwise they are called "omnes," not "cuncti."

Between "cæteri" and "alii." That "cæteri" are from the same number, "alii" from another.

Between "curulis" and "curialis." "Curiales" are public officials, "curules" truly of the seats, in which magistrates sitting render judgment.

Between "censor" and "censualis." "Censores" are also called judges, "censuales" truly officials who exact the provincial census. Meanwhile we also call a "censorium" man beautiful.

Between "cognatus" and "affinis," and "propinquus." A "cognatus" is of the same family; an "affinis" comes by marriage; a "propinquus" is joined by blood or by affinity.

Between "columis" and "incolumis." We understand "incolumis" of the mind, "columis" of the body. But "columen" is health, or a support, which is derived from "columna," whence also "culmen," and whence also "culmus."

Between "comptus" and "compositus." "Comptus" is by care, "compositus" by nature.

Between "crassus" and "grassus." "Crassus" belongs to the fatness of the body. For "grassari" belongs to the mind of excessive cruelty.

Between "crassus" and "obesus." "Crassus" is fat; "obesus" is more than fat.

Between "caerulus" and "caeruleus." "Caerulus" is a color; "caeruleus" is that which is made from that color by nature. For we call the color itself "caerulum."

Between "corpus" and "caro." That which is in every "caro" is a "corpus," but not in every "corpus" is there "caro." For "caro" is properly bones and blood, which nevertheless is also "corpus." But "corpus" is also a carpet and a piece of wood, which nevertheless is not "caro." Now "corpus" is so called from corruption, and "caro" from lacking, or from falling.

Between "capilli" and "capillamenta." "Capilli" are the hairs of the head; "capillamenta" are the tops of trees.

Between "collum" and "cervix." "Collum" always means the neck; but "cervix," when used in the singular number, signifies the neck; when in the plural, it signifies pride, as Cicero says in the Verrines: "Do you cut the throat of the praetor?" Break his necks.

Between "concidit" and "concidit." "Concidit," with the middle syllable shortened, signifies "fell"; "concidit," with the middle syllable lengthened, signifies "cut apart."

Between "cassis" and "galea." A "cassis" is of metal plate; a "galea" is of leather.

Between "clypeum" and "clupeum." We call "clypeum" a shield, "clupeum" an ornament. Between "clypeum" and "clupeum": "clypeus" is of the masculine gender, which we call a shield; "clupeum" is of the neuter gender and is called an image, from the fact that it "clueat," that is, is spoken and named, and is clear. So also "inclytus" is called renowned.

Between "consuetudo" and "ritus." "Consuetudo" is the use of a customary thing, made by the consent of two or very many. "Ritus" truly pertains to justice, as it were "rectum," from which comes what is pious, fair, and holy.

Between "Cognitor" and "Procurator." A "cognitor" is appointed only in person, by a person present, for a person present; but a "procurator" is also appointed in absentia to act against an absent party. Likewise, a "cognitor" contends in a suit only against the one against whom he was appointed to act, but a "procurator" acts before all. Also, a "cognitor" is customarily appointed only for a suit, that is, for the sake of expediting a trial, but a "procurator" administers all matters as well.

Between "Cochlearium" and "cochleare." A "cochlearius" is one who sells; a "cochleare" is the item itself.

Between "Coetus" and "cetus." "Coetus" is a multitude; "cetus" we call a beast.

Between "Commune" and "epicoenum." "Commune" pertains to gender; "epicoenum" pertains to animals.

Between "Capillatus" and "capillosus." "Capillatus" is one with abundant hair; "capillosus" is hairy and shaggy.

Between "Cornua" and "corna." "Cornua" are the horns of animals, or the yardarms of ships; "corna" is a kind of fruit.

Between "Coepit" and "cepit." "Cepit" is from "capiendo" (taking); "coepit" is from "incipiendo" (beginning).

Between "Calvus" and "calvatus." "Calvus" is so by nature, "calvatus" by hand. Hence we also say "decalvatus," strongly by the hand of the "decalvator."

Between "Circa," "circum," and "circiter." "Circa" concerns an uncertain place, on some side; "circum" concerns a certain place, on all sides; "circiter" concerns a number that is nearly infinite.

Between "Causa" and "ratio." "Causa" precedes the thing or the reason; "ratio" is in the thing itself. Likewise, "causa" is that on account of which something is done; "ratio" is that through which it is done.

Between "Civile" and "civicum." "Civile" is what pertains to the city; "civicum" is what the citizens themselves do.

Between "Cognoscimus" and "agnoscimus." We "cognoscimus" manners previously unknown; we "agnoscimus" things that had slipped from our memory.

On the letter D.

Between "Diurna," "diutina," and "diuturna." "Diurna" are made from "dies" (day), as in "diurna merces" (daily wages); "diutina" are so called from the fact that a thing has lasted a long time; but "diuturna" are called so from perpetuity, as it were eternal.

Between "Disertum" and "discretum." "Disertus" is an orator; "discretus" is a learned man, called so from "discere" (to learn).

Between "Dives" and "locuples." "Dives" is rich in money, but "locuples" in lands, as it were full of the riches of places.

Between "Defensor" and "ultor." A "defensor" takes care that injury not be done, an "ultor" brings it about that an injury not go unpunished once done.

Between "Deformis" and "turpis." "Deformis" pertains to the body. "Turpis" to the mind.

Between "Demens" and "delirus." A "demens" is one who is troubled at any age, and, that is, without mind; but a "delirus" is one whose mind has failed through age: he is called this because he wanders from the right order, as it were from the lira. For the lira is a kind of plowing, when farmers, once the seed is sown, direct the furrows.

Between "Dirus" and "atrox." "Dirus" is merciless, as it were driven to it by divine wrath. "Atrox" is cruel, that is, raw, and not gentle.

Between "Dolus" and "dolor." "Dolor" is a bodily discomfort or trouble. "Dolus" truly is hidden malice, adorned with flattering words.

Between "Dolus," "insidiae," and "fraus." "Dolus" is done in the mind, "insidiae" in place or by weapon, "fraus" concerning mutual faith.

Between "Dementia" and "amentia." Dementia is a temporary defect, amentia a perpetual one. Now dementia is so called as though it were a lessening of the mind.

Between "Distinctio" and "subdistinctio." Distinctio brings the sense to an end, subdistinctio leaves it suspended.

Between "Dimidium" and "dimidiatum." Dimidium is an equal part divided, dimidiatum is indeed a part, but not an equal one.

Between "Divertit" and "divortit." Divortium is a separation, when a woman departs from a man. Divertit vero is he who turns aside from the way or from reason.

Between "Deluit" and "diluit": deluit means purges, diluit means tempers. Livy, on the death of Mithridates: "Quod cum diluisset."

Between "Dilectum" and "delectum." Dilectum is from diligendo, delectum from deligendo.

Between "Directum" and "derectum." Derectum is across the breadth, directum along the length.

Between "Discernere" and "secernere." Discernit is he who divides into two parts; secernit is he who from many things chooses many apart.

Between "Dicere" and "Memorare." For he who pronounces the same thing once, mentions it; not he who says it once, but he who does the same thing rather often for the sake of preserving it in memory.

Between "Derigere" and "Dirigere." We derigere things that are curved; we dirigere when we head toward something.

Between "Deportare," "Comportare," and "Exportare." Deportare is to bring something; comportare is to gather into one place; exportare is to carry away.

Between "Discedere" and "Abscedere," and the rest. We say discedere for a parting of ways, abscedere for absence, secedere for solitude, decedere for death.

Between "Deduco" and "Diduco." Deduco is from bringing a friend forth. Diduco, however, is I draw apart, or I divide. Again, as it relates to triumphal horses: if horses, they duxere triumphs; if oxen, they deduxere. Again, as it relates to ships, we say subducere onto land, but deducere into the sea, as: The companions deducunt the ships.

Between "Duo" and "Ambo." Indeed, he who says duo counts; he who says ambo joins.

Between "Dispar" and "Impar." "Dispar" means unequal or dissimilar; "impar" means without equal.

Between "Duo" and "Bina." Cicero, in his letters to his son, says "duas epistolas," not "binas"; "binas litteras," not "duas." Because "littera," which signifies a letter, is a noun of the plural number only. For we say "bina" only of those things that do not admit the singular number, as "bina castra," "bina arma." But we call those things "duo" that admit the singular number.

Between "Domus" and "Hospitium." "Domus" belongs to its own inhabitants. For it is called "hospitium" when we either receive someone or are ourselves received by someone; whence both the one who comes and the one to whom one comes are called "hospes." Thus Plautus: "The host slew the guest captured by his hand."

Between "Decens" and "Speciosus" and "Formosus." "Decens" is approved by movement of the body, "speciosus" by appearance, "formosus" by nature or by form.

Between "Deformis" and "Informis." "Deformis" is that which lacks form; "informis" is beyond form.

Between "Decus" and "Amor." "Decus" refers to the mind, "decor" to bodily appearance.

Between "Delator" and "Dilator." A "delator" is one who reports something in order to accuse; a "dilator" is one who postpones in order to put off.

Between "Draco" and "Traco." A "draco" is a monstrous beast; "tracones" are those of the earth.

Between "Dives," "Potens," "Fortunatus," "Locuples," and "Honestus." "Dives" is [so called] from power and virtue; "potens" as if next to God; "locuples" from estates, as if full of places; "fortunatus," made blessed by substance; "honestus," one who uses [good] morals and honor.

Between "Do" and "Cedo." One who says "do" signifies to whom something is given; one who says "cedo" speaks only of himself.

Between "Deus" and "Divus." What God always is, "divus" becomes.

Between "Damnum," "Jactura," and "Detrimentum." "Jactura" is what we suffer knowingly and on both sides; "damnum" happens suddenly and when we do not believe it; "detrimentum" is a light loss, in part.

Between "Donum" and "Munus." A "donum" is offered to God, a "munus" to men.

Between "Delicta" and "Delecta." "Delicta" are sins, "delecta" are chosen things.

Between "Delictum" and "Injustitia." They have thought "delictum" to be a light sin, as it were abandoned through negligence, but "injustitia" to be some monstrous and savage act.

Between "Dolus" and "Dolor." "Dolus" is evasion, but "dolor" is bodily unrest.

Between "Dolosus" and "Inimicus." "Dolosus" is one who advances by hidden plotting, but "inimicus" is one who does evil more openly.

Between "Deduco" and "Diduco." "Deduco" [I lead], a friend; "diduco" [I draw apart], I separate.

Between "Directum" and "Derectum." "Directum" is going into a straight line; "derectum" is straight in its side.

Between "Disco" and "Doceo." He learns who does not know, but he teaches who knows.

On the letter E.

Between "Externum" and "Hesternum." We call "hesternum" that of yesterday, but "externum" is foreign, that is, alien.

Between "Eloquens" and "Loquax." The sincerity of eloquence belongs to the eloquent, but the effusive and unpolished recklessness belongs to the talkative. Whence Sallust says: "Talkative rather than eloquent." And Cicero: "This man was held to be talkative, never articulate.

Between "Expertam" and "expertum." For if we say "expertum" of things, we mean skilled; if "expertem," ignorant.

Between "Exercitatum" and "exercitum." "Exercitus" is one worn out by labors; "exercitatus" is one skilled either in art or in study.

Between "Exosum" and "odiosum." "Exosus" is said of one who hates someone; "odiosus," of one who is hated.

Between "Ebrietatem" and "ebriositatem." "Ebrietas" is drunkenness at a particular time; "ebriositas" is frequent intoxication from wine. Of this the Apostle says (1 Cor. 6): "Neither shall drunkards possess the kingdom of God." And fittingly a certain not ignoble orator, when he described a drunk man roused from sleep, said: "Roused, he could not sleep; drunk, he could not keep awake." By this sentence he expressed in a manner that he was neither dead nor alive.

Between "Eventum" and "eventa." "Eventus" is the thing itself; "eventa," however, are those things which come from an outcome.

Between "Egestatem" and "paupertatem." "Egestas" is worse than "paupertas," for poverty can be honorable, but destitution is always base.

Between "experience" and "knowledge": experience can be spoken of in an evil sense, as one who has experienced punishments, but knowledge only in a good sense.

Between "sends out" and "admits." We send out others from us, we admit others to us. Thus a certain man said to a certain virgin: Build a wall for your sex, which may neither send out your eyes nor admit those of others.

Between "to think" and "to judge." To think is within our own mind; to judge is to bring forth a judgment of the mind.

Between "to buy" and "to redeem." This differs because he who buys another's property buys it, but he who redeems properly buys that which was his own and has ceased to be his own.

Between "to expect" and "to look at." One who is to come is expected; one who is seen, or approved, is looked at.

Between "efferunt" and "eferunt." "Efferunt," with two f's, is said of those who export, that is, carry away. But "eferunt," with one f, is said of those who extol something to be praised. Cicero: Perhaps these things extol him too much.

Between "we follow out," "we pursue," and "we accompany." We follow out a death, in which there is vengeance; we pursue one who flees; we accompany when we discharge an office.

Between "immediately" and "instantly." "Immediately" means suddenly, or at once, or abruptly; "instantly" means presently or continuously.

Between "extinguished" and "quenched." We call a light "extinguished," as Cicero says: The lights of the state have been extinguished; but a fire is "quenched," as the same Cicero says: We have quenched the fires that were already close beneath us and had surrounded us.

Between "horseman," "equestrian," and "sequester." A "sequester" is one who intervenes as a neutral party between disputants, through whom each side may follow what is fair and equal. A "horseman" is one who sits on a horse in arms. "Equestrian" refers to a place or an order, as if you were to say: That man is of the equestrian order. Likewise: He serves as a soldier in the equestrian order.

Between "lifeless" and "terrified." "Lifeless" means dead, but "terrified" means fearing, as in this line: Terrified, she would dash against the ranks that followed.

Between "eu" and "heus." "Eu" is an interjection of one in grief; "heus" is an adverb of one calling out.

Between "blade" and "sword." A "blade" is the iron only, but a "sword" is the whole thing. The "point," however, is the sharpness not only of a sword but of any weapon. Likewise we speak generally of a "sword," a "blade" in battle, a "point" in its working.

Between "spoils" and "plunder." Spoils are the property of leaders, plunder that of private persons.

Between one who is relegated to an island and one who is deported, there is a great difference: first, because the property of the relegated person follows him, unless it has been taken away by sentence; the property of the deported person does not follow him, unless it has been openly granted to him. Thus it comes about that for the relegated person it does no good to have mention of his property made in the sentence, while for the deported person it does harm. They also differ in the character of the place. For one who is relegated is dealt with somewhat more humanely, but to the deported are customarily assigned islands that are the most rugged, and that are to be reckoned as scarcely less than the supreme punishment.

Between "wilderness" and "desert." A wilderness is a solitude on a road, where there has never been habitation; a desert is where there was once habitation and it has been abandoned.

Between "execration" and "oath." Execration, for example: "If I do not suffer evil"; oath: "If good comes to me."

Between "having experienced" and "awakened." "Having experienced" means having learned something; "awakened" means [roused] from sleep.

Between "en" and "em." "En" is when you point something out; "em" when you rebuke.

Between "ebrius" and "ebriosus." The "ebrius" drinks much for a time; the "ebriosus" always drinks much.

Between "aequum" and "equum." "Equus," which is an animal, is to be written with e and u only. But that which is written for "just" is to be written with the diphthong a and a doubled u.

On the letter F.

Between "fidelis" and "fidus." "Fidus" is said of a friend, "fidelis" of a servant. And "infidelis" is one who lacks firmness, "infidus" one who lacks faith.

Between "famosus" and "infamis." "Famosus" is one about whom report speaks, whether good or ill; "infamis" is only of ill report.

Between "ferox" and "ferus." "Ferox" is said of a mind, "ferus" of a lion.

Between "fallax" and "mendax." Every man who is "fallax" does that whereby someone is deceived; but not everyone who lies wishes to deceive. As in mimes and comedies, and many poems, where a lie is written rather than from a wish to deceive, from a desire to delight. For almost all who jest, lie.

Between "furtatum" and "furiosum." The "furiosus" is one who is carried along in the manner of wild beasts, and fury never departs from him; the "furiatus" is one who rages for a cause.

Between "furiosum," "furentem," and "iratum." The "furiosus" is so in heart, the "furens" for a cause, the "iratus" deservedly.

Between "ferocitatem" and "feritatem." "Ferocitas" is often held to be a praiseworthy quality. For there is a ferocity of soldiers, and a young man is called "ferox." "Feritas," however, is a dreadful habit of mind.

Between "formidinem," "pavorem," and "metum," or "timorem." "Formido" is set before either the eyes or the mind without reason being applied, and especially in little children; "pavor" is a sudden disturbance of the mind accompanied by timidity, which is nevertheless resolved by reason or by time, and does not persist; likewise "metus" is a sudden inner motion of the mind or heart, arising from some sorrowful recollection. "Timor," however, is grief of mind approaching from outside, from some accidental occasion. Furthermore, "timiditas" is a perpetual vice of the mind. For "timor" is for a time. And so in a brave man there is sometimes "timor," never "timiditas." There is also both a good "timor" and a bad one. It is bad when each person dreads that temporal goods be taken from him; it is good when, the more ardently someone loves God, the more carefully he fears to offend Him. For to fear is sometimes beneficial and fitting, according to the quality of the times and causes.

Between "facinus" and "flagitium" Augustine seems to distinguish as follows. Whatever, he says, an untamed desire does to corrupt one's own soul and body is called "flagitium"; but whatever it does to harm another is called "facinus." And these two are the kinds of all sins. But "flagitia" come first, which, when they have corrupted the soul, leap forth into "facinora."

Between "phantasia" and "phantasma." "Phantasia" is the image of some body that has been seen and afterward formed in the mind by thinking—for example, the appearance of a bird or of a father whom we once saw; and while we remember him by thinking, we call it "phantasia." But "phantasma" is an image formed from some known image that we have seen—for example, the appearance of a bird whom we do not remember ever having seen; yet its appearance is formed not by memory but by a movement of the mind. Therefore, from known appearances collected by memory comes "phantasia"; from unknown appearances formed in the mind comes "phantasma." For formed "phantasmata" are nothing other than [images] abstracted by bodily sense from the appearance of a body; and once memory has been fashioned, it is very easy to divide, multiply, contract, extend, order, disturb, or in any way shape by thinking, just as they have been received—but when the truth is sought, it is difficult to be on guard and avoid [error]. Likewise, "phantasia" is a conjecture of unknown things from known things; "phantasma," however, is the unknowing of known things.

Between "fiducia" and "confidentia." Fiducia is in good things, confidentia in evil things.

Between "fama" and "gloria." Gloria is surely of virtues, but fama of vices. Ennius in his Achilles: You will extol the highest fama for yourself for a bad life, and gloria prepared for a good one...; for the malevolent take up fama, the benevolent gloria.

Between "fatum" and "fortuna" the pagans distinguished as follows: for what came by chance, with no evident cause, they called fortuna; but fatum was whatever was appointed and fixed for each individual—for example, they said it was of fatum that we are born and that we die; of fortuna, whatever variety of events happens in life.

Between "falsitas" and "mendacium." To deny what is true is falsitas; to feign what is not true is mendacium. Whence also Cato: You, I say, if you suppress the truth, will be recognized as a falsifier; if you invent false things, you will be seen to be a liar.

Between "falsum" and "fictum." Falsum belongs to orators, where the truth is often so played with that things which were done are denied; but fictum belongs to poets, where things which were not done are said to have been done. Falsum, then, is what is not true; fictum is what is only verisimilar.

Between "fertile" and "fruitful." Fertile applies to a field; fruitful applies to whatever yields some profit.

Between "leafy" and "leafy." "Leafy" (frondeum) is a thing wholly made of leaves, like a couch; but "leafy" (frondosum) is a place. For although it may abound in leaves, it is not wholly made of leaves. So too with "grassy" (gramineum) and "grassy" (graminosum).

Between "to bend" and "to turn aside." To bend is backward and toward what is near; but to turn aside is farther off and into a byway.

Between "to enjoy" and "to use" there is this distinction: that we enjoy what we can by no means lack; we use things that we do not always and at some time do not have. And by this, to use is temporal, but to enjoy is eternal.

Between "to rage" and "to gnash." To rage is to rouse the frenzy of the mind all the way to a tumult of the voice; but to gnash is properly to press the teeth together and strike them. Whence "bridles" (frena) are so called because horses gnash them, that is, press them with their teeth and bite them. Hence also "frenzied" (frenetici) are so called, because they strike their teeth.

Between "to weep" and "to wail." "To weep" is to pour out tears abundantly, as it were to flow; "to wail" is, as it were, to weep with the voice, to beat the breast or face with tears. "To lament" is to weep with certain pitiable words. "To mourn" is to grieve in silence. "To be in mourning" is with a change of attire. But tears (lacrimae) are so called from the tearing (laceratio) of the mind. Those in mourning (lugentes) are so called as being in need of light (luce), whence mourning (luctus) is also named.

Between "to dig" and "to dig out." "To dig" is merely to disturb the earth; "to dig out" is by doing this very thing to draw something forth, or to find it, whose opposite is "to dig in."

Between "to serve" and "to comply." "To serve" is a matter of debt; "to comply" is properly a matter of will.

Between "to demand" and "to commit shameful acts." For "to demand" is the same as to press sharply; but "to commit shameful acts" is to defile.

Between "they flee" and "they scatter in flight." "They flee" together; "they scatter in flight" as divided.

Between "we confess" and "we acknowledge." To acknowledge is a matter of one's own judgment; for to confess is of a compelled mind, not of the will.

Between "Did you do it?" and "Surely you did not do it?" there is a difference in questioning. For in the place where we wish it to be answered to us that what was commanded has been done, we say: "Did you do it?" In the place where we wish it to be denied, we speak in this way: "Surely you did not do it?"

Between "it flows" and "it flows down." "It flows" is what naturally runs down, as moisture; "it flows down," however, is what is dissolved by age or old age, as the age of men, the leaf of a tree. But we say "to flow" in three ways: of the moisture of things, of the living, and of the decay of the dead.

Between "funebre," "funereum," and "funestum." "Funebre" is mournful; "funereum" is what consists of a funeral; "funestum," however, is what has been polluted by a funeral. And so a "funestus" servant is called one who has been defiled by some funeral, so that he is less able to perform the sacred rites.

Between "fragrat" and "flagrat." "Fragrat," with the letter a, refers to odor; with i, to flame and fire. For when it signifies a conflagration, which is nourished by blowing, we say it with i; and when it signifies odor, because it is greater from a broken appearance, it is pronounced with e.

Between "brother" and "german brother." Brothers are those who are born from the same father but not from the same mother. But those born from the same father and mother are called germani. And a germanus is so called from the same womb, or as flowing from the same stock.

Between "firm" and "strong." Firm is from firmness of nature, while strong is from outstanding powers, like an athlete.

Between "figure" and "form." Figure is of art, form of nature.

Between "farctum" and "partum." We call farctum that which has not been brought forth and lies within the womb; partum, that which has been brought forth.

Between "fessum" and "fangatum," and "lassum." Fessum is in mind and care; fatigatum, from the length of a journey; lassum, from labor.

Between "framea" and "machaera." Framea is the name for a sword sharp on both sides, which in common speech they call a spatha; machaera, however, is a long sword, sharp on one side.

Between "covenant" and "peace." For a covenant precedes peace. For peace is received later; the covenant is entered into first.

Between "river" and "stream," "river," "torrent," etc. A river is, generally speaking, a continuous flow of waters, so called from flowing. And properly the river is the water itself; the stream is that whose water it is; but a torrent is so called because it swells from rain and dries up in drought, that is, it becomes parched. Whence also Pacuvius: "The torrent scorches with flaming vapor." Furthermore, a brook is called that which arises suddenly from rain and swiftly runs down and fails; but a spring is the head of rising water. A river, however, is a stream crowned with grove and foliage, and from that very pleasantness it is called a river.

Between "lightnings" and "thunderbolts." Lightning is the splendor of a flashing cloud; but the river is a fiery point, sent from the clouds to the earth by the violence of the winds. There are, moreover, these three: flash, lightning, and bolt. The flash is what touches; the lightning is what kindles and burns; the bolt is what splits. And therefore they are depicted with three rays.

Between "flowering" and "full of flowers." Flowering things are trees and grass; full of flowers, the fields or meadows. So also other similar things are understood.

Between "grain" and "crops." Grain is dry and parched, while crops are liquid. The name of grain (frumentum) is drawn from frumen, that is, the prominent part of the throat.

Between "wild beasts" and "beasts." Every beast is wild, but not every wild creature is a beast. For beasts are those that rage with bite or claws, such as leopards, lions, and tigers, called so from ravaging (vastando). But "wild" (ferae) also applies to those which, though they do not rage, are nevertheless of the woods; and they are called ferae because they are nourished by their natural liberty and are carried along by their own desire.

Between "fasti" and "fasti" days. Fasti, taken universally, are both good and bad days—fasti being those to which nefasti are opposed.

Between "fasti" days and "nefasti" days. Fasti days are those on which it is permitted to exercise judgments and to plead or conduct a case; nefasti days are so called from the fact that it is nefas (wrong) to do, say, or perform any sacred rite on these days. Therefore nefasti are the opposite of festi days.

Between "festal days" and "solemn days." Festal days are so called from custom, while solemn days are those that pertain to all, such as the Parentalia. Thus when someone has performed the rites for a deceased person, he is said to have rendered the solemn rites.

Between "lightning," "flash," and "thunderbolt." Lightning (fulmen) is what strikes; the flash (fulgor) is what appears; the thunderbolt (fulgur) is what is hidden, if it falls from the sky.

Between "foul" and "covenant." Foul (foedus) is shameful; covenant (foedus) is an agreement.

Between "faith" and "string." Faith (fides) is in faith; fidis, with the genitive fidis, is of a string.

Between "hay" and "interest." Hay (fenum) is chaff; interest (fenus) is profit.

Between "it is fragrant" and "it blazes." Fragrat means it gives off a scent; flagrat means it strikes.

Between "favor" and "honeycomb." Favor is assistance; favum is honey.

Between "stolen" and "he steals." Furatum means him who commits theft; furtatum means what the thief steals.

Between "fate" and "foolish." Fatuum means sluggish; fatum is the decree of fortune.

Between "fasti" and "fastus." Fastus is from pride; fasti is from books.

Between "woman" and "thighs." Feminam is from a human being; femina means thighs.

Between "shears" and "tongs." Shears, that is, cutting instruments; tongs, pincers.

Between "fornication" and "adultery." Adultery is the defilement of the conjugal bed, while fornication is love released from lawful marriage and wandering free, pursuing license for the satisfying of lust. But the Scriptures are accustomed to call "fornication" every illicit corruption, such as idolatry and greed, from which comes transgression of the law, on account of illicit desire. Fornication, moreover, took its name from certain arched buildings which the ancients called fornices, in which prostitutes were stationed and plied their trade. Prostitutes, furthermore, are so called from merendo, that is, from earning the wages of lust. Whence also soldiers, when they receive their pay, are said mereri.

On the letter G.

Between "thanks" and "graces." Thanks are given to God, but graces to men, since they can be returned. Therefore it is most fittingly suited to God, since it signifies a relation to latria.

Between "joy" and "gladness." The Stoics distinguish them thus: they say that joy is an elation of mind exulting in things that are worthy, while gladness is an unbridled elation of the mind that knows no measure, and rejoices even in things that are mixed with vice. Hence also Scripture says: "There is no joy for the impious," says the Lord.

Between "gravity" and "heaviness." Gravity comes from the weight of the mind and from judgment, while heaviness belongs to the body. Between "heavy" and "pregnant." "Heavy" is said of nature; "pregnant" of an accidental fruitfulness, as a tree is pregnant with apples.

Between "to chatter" and "to speak." He speaks who says things rightly and with restraint; he chatters who either says many words or speaks basely.

Between "to bear" and "to carry." We bear our own things, and, as it were, by some natural right, the things that are in us; but we carry things imposed on us, like a burden. But Virgil uses them interchangeably (Aeneid I): "The faithful Achates who bore his weapons." He put "bore" for "carried.

Between gravatur and ingravatur: ingravatur is with another's burden, gravatur with one's own.

Between gens and gentes, and genus. Gens is of a nation, as of Greece, of Assyria; hence also gentilitas is said. Gentes, however, are of a family, as the Julian, the Claudian. Genus truly refers to quality, as of a herd, of an apple.

Between Graecus, Graecanicus, and Graecensis. Graecus is said of a man; Graecanica of a thing; Graecense, of the kind that is customary in Greece.

Between Gallus and Gallicus, and Gallicanus. Gallus is one born in Gaul, Gallicus is brought from Gaul, Gallicanus is that which brings something from Gaul.

Between germana and soror. A soror is born from the same stock, not from the same womb; but a germana flows from the seed of both.

Between genitor and pater. Genitor is a term of nature, or of origin; for pater is a name of dignity and honor. Hence we call holy men and elders fathers. But our genitors are those from whom we are born.

Between generat and parturit. We say that men generate, women give birth. For example: he generated, she gave birth.

Between gubernator and nauta. For every gubernator can be a nauta, but not every nauta can be a gubernator.

Between grande and maximum. Grande pertains to the body, maximum to the mind.

On the letter H.

Between hodie and hoc die. Hodie is, as it were, that it is first happening; hoc die, as it were, that we report something as having happened at some time.

Between hunc diem and hanc diem. Dies of the masculine gender indicated good time among the ancients; of the feminine, evil, as in Job, cursed days.

Between habeo and ab eo. Habeo, I retain; ab eo, that is, from him.

Between hos and os. If we write hos, we signify a person; without it, it signifies the face.

Between haeresis and schisma. Schisma is to hold the same opinion, and to worship with the same rite as the others, and to delight in the division of the congregation alone; but haeresis is to hold far different opinions than the others, and to establish for itself another and far dissimilar observance of perverse doctrine. Haeresis in Greek is said from election, namely because each one chooses for himself what seems to him better. Secta, however, is said from division, as it were sectio. Hence also the sects of philosophers or of heretics are spoken of.

Between honos and onus. Honos comes from honor, onus from burden.

Between hora and ora. Hora, with the letter h, means of days; without h, of regions, or of boundaries, or the meaning of mouth, by which speech is expressed.

Between honustus and oneratus there is this difference: that oneratus is one pressed by any sort of weight, but honustus is one for whom the burden itself is an honor, as if someone were carrying the spoils of enemies. But oneratus does not have aspiration, because it comes from onus; honustus, however, because it descends from honor, retains the aspiration.

Between hauritur and exhauritur. Water is drawn, a well is drained.

Between herbidum and herbosum. We call herbidum a place in which the greenness of grass never ceases; herbosum a courtyard which easily produces grass and dries up in time.

Concerning the letter I.

Between inferum and infernum. The upper part of hell is the inferus, where the souls of the just rested before the coming of Christ. But the lower part is the infernus, into which the souls of the impious who sinned most greatly are thrust. Concerning this the Prophet rejoices that his soul has been freed, saying: Because you have freed my soul from the lower hell.

Between initium and principium. Initium is the starting point of things, from which something begins, as the foundations of a house, the keel of a ship; principium, however, is the beginning of words.

Between judicium and justitia. Justitia is the pursuit of living rightly, judicium truly is the equity of judging rightly; whoever, therefore, by living well devotes himself to it, does justice; whoever judges rightly in matters subject to him, guards judgment. But judgment is profaned in a time of cunning, not by dignity. For first it is fitting that each person be just, provide for uprightness, and after this he attains equity in judgments. The first of these belongs to virtue, the second to honor. For no one can arrive at honor except through virtue. For justice differs from judgment. For a judgment is customarily called depraved when it is unjust; but justice can never be unjust.

Between incantator, magus, aruspex, and maleficus. Incantatores are those who accomplish a matter by words. Magi are those who philosophize about the stars. Malefici are those who use blood and victims, and often touch the bodies of the dead. Aruspices are those who inspect the entrails of cattle, and from them foretell the future.

Between indoctum and indocile. Indocilis is one who is utterly unable to learn. Indoctus is one who does not yet learn, and yet is able to learn. Distinguish similar words according to this pattern, for example immotus and immobilis, and the like.

Between innoxtum and innocuum. Innocuus is one to whom no harm is done; innoxius is one who does not know how to do harm.

Between impurum and impudicum. Impudicus is one who brings about the shamefulness of a disgraceful act; impurus is one who suffers it.

Between immemorem and ignarum. Immemor is one who has forgotten; ignarus is one who is unaware. Whence also the nostrils (nares) are so called, because they admonish us by smell to recognize something and know it. Whence also the ancients used to say olfecisse for scisse.

Between inertem and segnem. Iners is without skill (sine arte), and for this reason without any work at all. Segnis is, as it were, without fire (sine igne); just as securus is without care (sine cura), that is, cold, whereby we understand it as useless.

Between insanum and insanientem. Insanus is one who is held by perpetual madness of mind; insaniens is one suddenly stirred by indignation or anger.

Between the impious and the sinner, this is usually the difference: that every impious person is a sinner, but not every sinner is to be considered impious. For impious is whoever is made estranged from the piety of faith, while a sinner is one who is defiled by depraved action.

Between iniquity and sin, Ambrose says the difference is this: that iniquity refers to bitterness of mind, while sin refers to a lapse of the body. Iniquity therefore comes first, sin follows. But iniquity is graver, as being the matter of sins, in comparison with which sin is lighter. Likewise, sin is what is committed; a piaculum is both what has been committed and what is expiated after being committed. There are three differences of iniquity: suggestion, delight, and consent. Between iniquities and sins, Saint Jerome makes this distinction: we call iniquities those things which are committed before faith has been received, whether through ignorance or through knowledge. But sins are those which are contracted after the knowledge of faith or the grace of baptism; and there are just as many kinds of sins: of word, of deed, and of consent.

Between the envious and the envied: the envious person envies one who is happier, while the envied person is one who suffers envy from another. Yet nothing is honorable that is not envied. For no one envies the wretched; but who is good and not envied?

Between anger and irascibility. Anger is present [in the moment] and arises from a cause; irascibility, however, is a natural and perpetual vice. Likewise the angry man is stirred up for a time; the irascible man, however, is frequently angry, and at a light breeze of speech, like a leaf by the wind, he is moved. Of such people Scripture says: An irascible man is dishonorable. And again: The irascible man digs up sins.

Between ignominy and infamy. Ignominy is placed in someone's power, but infamy comes about by the consenting speech of many.

Between incusare and accusare. We incusare (find fault with) our superiors, we accusare (accuse) our equals. Likewise we incusare by word, we accusare by charge and deed.

Between jubere and imperare. Among the ancients jubere was not the same as imperare; for jubere was said where there was obedience of will; imperare, however, where each one obeyed by due command.

Between being tossed about and being worn out: we are tossed about on the waves of the sea, we are worn out on land.

Between I lie and I throw. "I lie" signifies one reclining, while "I throw" shows that one sends.

Between fire and hearth. Fire is the flame itself, while the hearth is the tinder and nourishment of the fire. For Varro says: "The hearth (focus) is so called because it fosters (fovere) the fire." Therefore "hearth" is named from "fostering."

Between doorway and entrance. The doorway is the first approach into a house, the entrance into any place of the house. Likewise, indeed, the doorway is either closed or open; but the doors and the folding doors are themselves closed things, yet "doors" are those which turn outward, "folding doors" those which open inward, and they are double, multiple, and foldable. "Gates" however are properly spoken of walls; and they are so called for the reason that in ancient times they were marked out by carrying a plow, when a circle was drawn around and the city was marked out.

Between "similar to him" (illius similis) and "similar to him" (illi similis). "Similar to him" in the genitive refers to character, "similar to him" in the dative refers to countenance.

Between Juventa and Juventus. Juventus is a multitude of young people; Juventa, however, is the age of men. Juventas truly is the glory of youth, but the authorities have set it down otherwise in very many places.

Between Inficere and Officere. Inficere is to change a color; officere is to harm someone.

Between Invenire and Reperire. We invenire things that have been sought out; we reperire things that meet us of their own accord.

Between Inquirere and Quaerere. We inquirere into those things about which we doubt; we quaerere things unknown.

Between Impendere and Impendere. Impendere with a short vowel comes from that which is impendo, impendere; but impendere, if you lengthen the letter e, signifies to threaten, from that which is impendeo.

Between Juvat and Jubat. Juvat means it delights; jubat means it helps.

Between Illicem and Ilicem. Illicem with two i's signifies a seducer; ilicem with one i indicates a tree.

Between It and Id. Id is a pronoun; it, however, means he goes.

Between Inquit and Inquid, as for instance where inquit is said.

Between Insitum and insertum. We call trees insitae (grafted), but causes or stories insertae (inserted).

Between Illud and illuc. Illud is a pronoun, illuc an adverb.

Between Imprecari and deprecari. Imprecari is to curse; deprecari is to excuse and to clear oneself.

Between Incola and inquilinus. Incola indeed and inquilinus are a sign of a lost homeland; but inquilinus is said as long as he is a stranger, until an incola has found a seat.

Between Indigenam and indigentem. Indigentes are the needy; indigena, those born from there.

On the letter L.

Between Libertatem and liberalitatem. Libertas is a matter of status, but liberalitas of beneficence and generosity, as to clothe the naked, to redeem captives, to provide food for the poor.

Between Laudabilem and laudandum. Laudabilis is he who can be praised, laudandus he who ought to be praised.

Between Luxuriosum and prodigum. Luxuriosus is, as it were, dissolved into pleasures, whence limbs moved from their place are called luxa; but prodigus is wasteful, who drives everything onward, and as it were throws it away.

Between Lascivious and petulant. Lascivious is from excess, petulant from recklessness. Petulance, moreover, is called lust from the fact that it seeks (petit) another's shame wickedly.

Between Litigious and litigant. A litigious person is one about whom litigation is brought, as it were a field; a litigant is one who litigates.

Between Gladness and exultation. Gladness is a joy of the mind, but exultation is of words and limbs. Again, exultation is distinguished from jubilation. For where words suffice for gladness, and the tongue is fit to unfold the joy of the mind, it is exultation. But where one cannot announce the joy conceived in words, but the very gladness of the soul poured forth bursts out into a kind of voice of exultation, it is jubilation.

Between Lethe and death some have attempted to make a distinction, saying: Lethe comes of itself, but death is brought on.

Between Lust and lividness. Lust is a desire of the mind; lividness is a lividness of the body. But there are many and various lusts, as the lust for revenge, which is called anger; as the lust for possessing money, which is named avarice; as the lust for conquering in whatever way, which is called obstinacy; as the lust for glorying, which is termed boastfulness. And although there are lusts for many things, and it is not added for what thing the lust is, it does not usually occur to the mind, except that one only by which the shameful parts of the body are aroused to the foulness of disgraceful acts.

But deservedly this one among other things has obtained this name for itself properly, because in corruptible flesh it rages more than the rest. It is called libido (lust), moreover, from the fact that it pleases (libeat) to seek another's shame, or any thing whatsoever.

Between Praise and praising. Praise (laus) belongs to him who is praised; praising (laudatio), however, to him who praises. Likewise praise is that in which virtue shines forth; praising is the very speech of things to be praised. Praise and joy consist without celebration of voice in the admiration of the mind; praising, however, is the proclamation of any thing, adorned with the aid of speech.

Between Largeness and largess. Largeness is of humanity, largess of ambition.

Between To rejoice and to congratulate. We rejoice over our own goods, we congratulate over those of friends.

Between To read and to read repeatedly. To read refers to a time, to read repeatedly to frequency. Sometimes also to read is a nautical word, because a ship is also said to read whatever it passes over.

Between labium and labrum. We call the upper one labium, the lower labrum. Rostrum is only for birds, because it is curved. But someone strives most vainly.

Between lactans and lactens, because lactans is she who offers milk, lactens is he to whom milk is offered.

Between leges and jura. Jus is spoken, lex is written. Hence also Virgil: He was giving jura and leges to men. Likewise, human leges are jura divine. And therefore also juramentum is spoken, that is, a sacrament in God. Hence also Virgil: It is fas for me to loose the sacrated jura of the Greeks.

Between leges and mores. Lex is set forth in writings, but mos is a certain law of living, bound by no chain, or a law not written, but retained only with use.

Between latro and fur. He who steals another's property is a fur; he who steals and kills is a latro. Properly, however, latro is said from latitando in ambushes; fur, moreover, is called from furvus, that is, black; for he uses the time of night. Plautus, moreover, said beautifully to a certain man who was stealing: You are a man of three letters, that is, fur.

Between locus religiosus, sacer, and sanctus: what we call sacer is what pertains to the gods above; religiosus, what pertains to the gods below; but sanctus is what is holy by some sanctity, as in Homer the bulls are called "soli sancti, sacri, sacrosancti."

Between labat and lavat. Labat means "nods"; lavat means "to be a washer."

Between laetum and lethum. Laetum means "rejoicing"; lethum means "death."

Between labium and labrum. Labium is of the mouth; labrum is of a vessel, from rostrum, because it is curved.

Between lympha and nympha. Lympha is water; nympha is a goddess.

Between lis and rixa. Lis is joined between two, and once stirred up is ended; rixa is between many and consists in quarreling.

Between ligat and legat. Ligat is when someone binds with a chain; legat is when someone bequeaths by testament.

Between limen and limes. Limen is of a house; limes is of regions or boundaries.

Between libat and immolat. The ancients used to say immolare when, placing victims on a heap of the altar, they put fire under the sacrifices. Libare, however, was when they poured bowls full of pure wine onto the altars. For libare properly means "to pour." Hence also Liber is called, because he is said to have shown the use of wine in Greece. We therefore, according to the distinction of words, immolate the bread, and libate the cup.

On the letter M.

Between misericordia and miseratio. To wish well belongs to misericordia; to do well belongs to miseratio. For miseratio is so called as it were misericordiae actio, the acting out of compassion. For misericordia is only the feeling of the heart by which we are compelled to come to the aid of the wretched. Wherefore misericordia knows how to grieve with the wretched, even if there is nothing from which help may be given; miseratio, however, is proven by deed.

Between memorare and commemorare. Few things are memorantur, many things commemorantur.

Between mansuetus and modestus. Mansuetus is one who inflicts injury on no one; modestus is one who does not grow angry even when he has been wronged.

Between miser and misellus. We call miser the one still living, misellus the one who has died.

Between miserandus and miserabilis. Miserabilis is one whom we are able to pity; miserandus is one whom we ought to pity.

Between memoriosus and memor. Memoriosus has a memory; memor, however, is mindful of a benefit or of a defense.

Between mora and tarditas. Mora is what hinders; tarditas is what is hindered. Mora is in the matter, tarditas in the person.

Between mendum and mendacium. Mendum is properly said of a book, whence we also say emendare. But mendacium is in other things.

Between malitia and malignitas. A depraved thought of the mind is called malitia; the desire or work of malice is called malignitas.

Between multatio, poena, and supplicium. Multatio can be without blood, in the loss of money. Supplicium is with blood; poena truly is pain without blood.

Between munus and donum. Munus is a debt, as to a patron; donum is an honorarium. Likewise donum is the giver's, munus the receiver's. Now donum is said from giving, munus from fortifying, or from warning.

Between meruit and promeruit. Meruit is common both to punishment and to reward; promeruit only to reward. For he is called promeritus who does well, just as immeritus who does ill.

Between magnum and grandem. We refer magnum to the mind, grandem to the body.

Between mutuum dare and commodare. One who gives a mutuum is going to receive something else back; one who commodat certainly desires that the same thing be returned to him.

Between monere and admonere. Monet is the one who instructs; admonet is the one who brings back to memory what had slipped away.

Between meretur and moeret. One who meretur is worthy of some benefit; one who moeret is sad.

Between miramur and admiramur. We admiramur virtues, we miramur works.

Between miseremur and miserescimus. We miseremur as much as is necessary, we miserescimus more than is necessary. Likewise we miseremur when asked, we miserescimus of our own accord.

Between monemus, admonemus, and commonemus. We monemus future things, we admonemus present things, we commonemus past things.

Between multitudo and numerus. Multitudo is made by number, turba by place. For a few people in a narrow space can make a turba.

Between mihi and mi. Mihi is the dative case, mi the vocative.

Between municeps and municipalis. Municipes are the elders of the curiales, so called because they receive the duties of the fisc; municipales, however, are original citizens, and in place of [perhaps: in the place of] performing office.

Between mamillae and mammae, and ubera. Mamillae are men's, mammae are women's, ubera are animals'. Papillae, however, are the tips at the top of the mammae, which those who suck grasp.

Between matrona and mater familias, the grammarian Melissus holds that this is the difference: that matrona is said of the mother of a first child; mater familias, of one who has borne several. Others have said that matrona is she who has come into marriage with a man, and has acted in that marriage; but mater familias is she who is in the hand and ownership of her husband, or whose husband is in her hand and ownership, since she has also come into the family of her husband and of her own heir. But matronae and marriageable virgins are said to be those who can already become mothers, since through a certain solemnity of law they migrate into the family of their husbands.

Between mortuum and emortuum. Mortuum is a body already lifeless; emortuum, however, is near to death.

Between mare and maria. Mare is the whole element, while maria are parts of the sea, just as there are terrae, while terra is only the element.

Between mountains and hills. Mountains are swellings of the earth; hills are the more prominent ridges of mountains, as it were necks.

377. Between malogranata and malogranatum. Malogranata, of the feminine gender, is the tree; malogranatum, however, of the neuter gender, is the fruit. Just as persicus and persicum: persicus, of the feminine gender, is the tree; persicum, of the neuter gender, is the fruit. Just as huxus and buxum: for buxum is neuter, the wood; buxus is feminine, the tree.

Between magis and potius. Magis is to prefer one of two things, whichever one compares; potius condemns the other.

Between mala and malas. Mala are fruits, malae however are jaws.

Between marem and mare. Marem is a male; mare is the element of water.

Between one who lies and one who is deceived. It must be considered that he lies who wishes to appear to be what he is not; but he who, not willing it, thinks something other than what is, does not lie but is deceived. Therefore the will to deceive is present in every liar; but the matter of deceiving is not the will to lie. For a stone also deceives, and many bodies deceive by their appearance, as oars broken in the water, though they are whole; but also towers, as if running, deceive the eyes of sailors. And yet they do this by the appearance of nature, not by the will to lie.

Between monile and munile. Monile is said to be a clasp, from monendo, because it warns a woman to be under the power of her husband; munile, however, is said to be a garment, from muniendo, or munile is said to be an ornament of gems which is accustomed to hang from a woman's neck: it is named from munere.

On the letter N.

Between necessitas and necessitudo. Necessitas compels something to be done; necessitudo, however, is an affection or a bond of kinship.

Between nihil and nihili. Nihil is an adverb; nihili, however, is a man of no importance.

Between nudum and nudatum. For those things are called nudata which are accustomed to be clothed; those things nuda which are not accustomed to be covered. Likewise nudus is correctly said of that thing or by that thing. Nudatus, however, is announced by that thing.

Between negamus and abnegamus. Negamus, if something is objected; abnegamus, if something is requested.

Between neminem and nullum. We refer neminem to a person, nullum to all things.

Between nomen, praenomen, cognomen, and agnomen. Nomen is the word of a proper appellation; praenomen, which is placed before names on account of the dignity of the family, as Publius Virgilius—for we cannot say Virgilius Publius. Cognomen, which comes from the family of the clan, as for instance Scipio Cornelius, sprung from the Cornelian family. Agnomen, which is drawn from virtue or vice: as Scipio Africanus, for the reason that he conquered Africa; or Lentulus Sura, for the reason that his ancestors had warts. Accordingly nomen comes from propriety, praenomen from dignity, cognomen from origin, and agnomen from appearance or action.

Between Nascitur and enascitur. Nascitur, because it comes forth from the womb; enascitur, because it rises up out of the earth or water.

Between Nauta and navita. Navita is poetic. For it is derived from nauta, but for the sake of meter one letter was added by the poets.

Between Num and nunc. Num, "whether"; nunc, "now."

Between Ne and nae. Nae, if it is placed before, is an adverb and is pronounced with an acute accent; ne, however, if it is joined after, is a conjunction, and with a grave accent.

Between Nigro and migro. Nigro, "I make black"; migro, it is a change.

Between Neutrum and neutralem. Neutrum is a noun, or pronoun, or participle; neutrale, however, is a verb.

Between Notus and notus. Notus, "known"; notus, "by judgment"; Notus, the south wind.

Between Nobilem and nobilem. Nobilis, "well-born"; nobilis, "known to all."

Between Nomina and Numina. Nomina are words; numina, power.

Concerning the letter O.

Between Osculum and pacem. We say that a kiss of peace is given to friends or children; to a wife a basium; to a harlot a suavium. Likewise an osculum is of charity, a basium of flattery, a suavium of pleasure. Which some have also distinguished in verses: Basia are given to spouses, but oscula also to friends; suavia are wont to be given by wanton lips.

Between Occasio and opportunitas. In literature it is used fittingly: occasio smiled upon him; opportunitas presented itself, or a favorable opportunity followed.

Between Observatio and observantia. Observatio belongs to care, learning, and skill; observantia, however, belongs to worship and religion.

Between Opus and operatio. Opus is the thing itself that is made; operatio, however, is the very action of the thing.

Between Omne and totum. Omne pertains to multitude and to number: to number, as all men; to multitude, as we say every household, every army, every flock. Totum, however, pertains to magnitude, as the whole body, the whole earth, the whole heaven. Therefore totus homo, if we refer to the body; omnis homo, if concerning all persons. Accordingly, omne is applied to different parts, but totum ought to be without parts.

Between Orare and exorare. Orare is to ask; exorare, to obtain.

Between Obesse and officere. He who obest harms; he who officit wishes to harm.

Between Officere and inficere. Officere is to wish to harm someone; inficere is to change a color.

Between Olet and redolet. Olet applies to a thing, whether it smells bad or good; redolet only to what smells good.

Between Uracula and delubra. Oracula are temples where prayer is offered, whence also responses are given. Delubra, however, are temples having springs for purifying and washing the faithful. And thence delubra is named from diluendo, "washing away." Whence also these places formerly did not have altars, so that they were only delubra, not templa.

Between Orbum and caecum. Orbus is one who loses his children; caecus is one who loses his eyes.

Between Occidit and occidit. Occidit, with the middle syllable shortened, signifies one who has died; occidit, however, with the middle syllable lengthened, signifies one who kills.

Between Olea and oliva the authorities distinguish thus: that olea is the fruit, oliva the tree, because a multitude is called an olivetum, as a quercetum and a pometum. Indeed, the poets without distinction often put both olea and oliva for the fruit. But custom has prevailed that oliva means the fruit. Nor does it forbid that the same name belong to both the tree and the fruit.

Between Odorum, odorabile, and odoriferum. For what gives off a scent by itself is odorum; odorabile, however, is what receives a scent from elsewhere; odoriferum is what follows a scent.

Between Operam and opera. Operam is what one does; opera, however, is what is done.

Between Ostium and hostia. Ostium is what is opened; hostia is a sacrifice.

Between Ortus and hortos. Ortus is a rising; hortos we call fields.

Between Oblitum and oblitum. Oblitum, with short quantity, is poured over; oblitum, with long quantity, is forgetful.

Between Offerre and inferre. Offerre is to offer of one's own accord; inferre is to bring in.

On the letter P.

Between Prudentia and sapientia. Prudentia is distributed in human affairs, sapientia in divine.

Between Pudor and pudicitia. Pudor belongs to the body; pudicitia to the mind.

Between Pietas and affectio. Pietas is shown among those bound by blood; affectio among strangers.

Between Patientia and tolerantia. Tolerantia is patience of the body, patientia of the mind. As Sallust says: A body patient of hunger, of cold.

Between Peritus, prudens, callidus, and facundus. Peritus is one learned by experience; prudens, as it were providens, a useful arranger of future things; callidus, one equipped through the practice of a skill; facundus, one who can easily [speak] rarely.

Between Pudens and verecundus there is this difference, that pudens fears both true and false opinion; verecundus, however, fears only true opinion.

Between Profanus, nefandus, and nefarius. Nefarius, as Varro thinks, is one unworthy of far (spelt). By which first kind of food the life of men was sustained. Nefandus, that is, not even to be named. Profanus, however, is one who is not permitted to take part in sacred rites. Concerning whom Sallust says: The profane man will pollute the sacred rites. Profanus therefore is, so to speak, porro, that is, far from the fane (temple).

Between Peccator and immundus, because every peccator is immundus; yet not every immundus is a peccator. For a peccator is one who transgresses the commandments of God, and this one must also be immundus because he transgresses. Immundus, however, is also one who has slept with his wife, or has touched the dead, yet is not for that reason a peccator.

Between Ploratus, planctus, and fletus. Ploratus is weeping of tears only, planctus of voices only, while fletus belongs to both.

Between Pigritia and torpor. Torpor belongs to one who is drowsy, pigritia to one who is awake.

Between Perseverantia and pertinacia. Perseverantia is in virtue, pertinacia in vice.

Between Praesidium, auxilium, and subsidium. Praesidium is placed in some advantageous position, auxilium is what is given by outsiders, subsidium is what comes afterward as reinforcement.

Between potentia and potentatus. Potentia belongs to each one individually, while potentatus is judicial authority.

Between Pestis and pestilentia. Pestis is the very name of the disease, while pestilentia is what it brings about of itself. There are three kinds of pestilentia: from the earth, from the water, or from the air.

Between Passio and propassio Jerome distinguishes in his commentary on Matthew, saying that passio is reckoned as guilt; propassio, although it has guilt, is nevertheless not held as a crime. Therefore he who has looked upon a woman and whose soul has been titillated has been struck by propassio. But if he has consented and has turned the thought into affection (as it is written in David: they have passed into the affection of the heart), he passes from propassio to passio, and to this there is no lack of will, but of occasion.

Between Percunctatio and interrogatio, Augustine thinks there is this difference, saying: that to percunctatio many things are usually answered, as for instance, "What is this, or that?" so that diverse or various things are answered. To interrogatio not many things are answered, but either no, or even it will be pronounced. As for instance, "Was it done or said? Is it true or false?" It is answered: either no, or even.

Between Perfectum and consummatum there is this difference: that perfectum is that to which nothing else can now be added. Consummatum, however, is any work brought to its end.

Between Patens and patulum. We call patulum that which is naturally always open, as the nostrils, a tree. Patens, however, is that which is opened and closed, as a door, the eyes. So too lucidum and lucibile: lucidum is that which is illuminated from elsewhere, lucibile that which shines by itself.

Between Penetrale and penetrabile. That which penetrates is called penetrale; that which is penetrated, however, penetrabile. Penetralia, moreover, are the secret parts of houses, and are so called from that which is penitus, "deep within.

Between post and pone there seems to be this difference: that we always place post in reference to time, when we say, "I will come after a time"; but pone, in reference to what is behind the back.

Between precari, imprecari, and deprecari: precari is to ask, imprecari is to wish, deprecari is to excuse or to clear. Cicero, in the second book against Verres, says: "What should Hortensius do? Should he deprecate the charges of avarice by praises of frugality?"

Between poscere and exposcere: poscere is less than exposcere. For those poscunt who simply seek; those exposcunt who desire earnestly.

Between polliceri and promittere: we are said polliceri when we promise of our own accord and unasked; promittere when it is asked of us. Therefore we promittere when asked, we pollicemur of our own will. Likewise we pollicemur by writing, we promittimus by word.

Between properare and festinare: Marcus Cato distinguishes them thus, saying: "He who finishes each single thing in good time, he properat. He who begins many things at once and does not finish them, he festinat. I used to finish each single thing I had begun.

Between primus and prior. Primus is one of many, prior one of two, primarius by dignity.

Between plures and pluris. Pluris is that which is paid out at a greater sum, but plures we write of a multitude.

Between petivit and expetivit. Petivit is put for "little," expetivit for "sought enough." And he strove most hostilely and vehemently. For ex is put for "greatly."

Between pyra and rogus: a pyra is a construction of logs, before fire has been applied. A rogus is while it burns. But a bustum is after it has burned.

Between plebs and populus. Plebs differs from populus in this, that populus is the general whole of citizens together with the elders, but plebs is the lowly and abject part.

Between pauperies and paupertas. Pauperies is loss, paupertas is the condition itself.

Between proclivum and declivum. Proclivus is an ascent; declivus, an easy descent.

Between puerpera and puella. Puella is said to be one unclad and small in age, as it were a pulla; but puerpera is she who has first brought forth a boy, and gives birth in her boyish years. Whence also Horace: puerperae are praised for similar offspring.

Between pampineum and pampinosum. Pampineum is that which is wholly made of vine-shoots; pampinosum is that which is full of vine-shoots.

Between populus and populos: for when we say populos in the plural number, we mean cities; when we say populus, we understand the multitude of one city.

Between pontifex and vates. Pontifex signifies only the highest priest; vates, however, signifies several things—either priests, or poets, or prophets.

Between profugus and exsul. Profugus is by will, exsul by necessity.

Between patrium and paternum. Paternum is that which belonged to the father, as a paternal estate. Patrium is said of that which is like the father, as a paternal spirit.

Between proprius and propius. Proprius is a name; propius, however, means near me.

Between praegnans and gravida there is this difference: praegnans is she who has conceived; gravida is she whom the heaviness of the womb shows to be near to childbirth.

Between pignera and pignora. Pignera are of things; pignora, of children and affections.

Between Portentum and monstrum. A portentum is that which is presented in diverse forms; a monstrum is that which is born outside nature, either too large or too small.

Between Portentum and portentosum. A portentum is said to be that which, taking on a change of nature in every part, seems to portend something to come, like a head with two faces on one body, or as they report that in the palace of Xerxes a fox was born from a mare (Herodian), whereby the dissolution of his kingdom was shown. For portentosa are said to be those things which take on a change in part of the body, as, for example, when people are born with six fingers, or with some deformity of the limbs.

Between Portentum and ostentum. A portentum is born and remains in its own quality; an ostentum, however, is suddenly offered to the eyes and withdrawn. Thus a portentum is said from portending, that is, showing forth, just as also a prodigium, because it speaks forth, that is, foretells future things from afar. Monstrum, indeed, is said from warning or from showing, because by signifying something it demonstrates and stands forth. Moreover, there are five kinds of prodigies, as Varro says, that is: portentum, ostentum, prodigium, miraculum, and monstrum.

Between Pueritia and pubertas. Pueritia is the tender and small age, so called from purity; pubertas, however, is the adult age which can already beget; it is named from the pubes, that is, from the shameful parts of the body, because these places then first put on down. Pueritia, moreover, begins from the seventh year, pubertas from the fourteenth.

Between Percussum and perculsum. We call percussum that which is struck in body, perculsum in mind. Cicero, On Statues: As if she herself had been struck by that torch.

Between Parricida and paricida. We call parricida one who kills a parent; paricida, one who kills a companion and equal.

Between Procella and tempestas. Procellae are not so much of the lands as of the sky, but tempestates are of the waves.

Between Plantae and plantaria. Because plantae are those torn from trees, but plantaria are those born from seeds, and are transferred with their roots and their own soil.

Between Pomarium and pometum. A pomarium is where fruits are placed, a pometum where fruits grow, a pomerium where fruits are found.

Between Pyra and pyrum. A pyra is a burning pyre, but a pyrum is a fruit.

Between Piscator and piscarius. A piscator is one who catches, a piscarius is one who sells.

Between Pulvereum and pulverulentum. Pulvereum means made [of dust]; pulverulentum means full of dust.

Between Pennas, and pinnas, and pennum. Pinnae are of walls, pennae of birds, from hanging; pennum is the tip of a sharp iron.

Between Praeda, lucrum, and compendium. Praeda is from an enemy, lucrum from business, compendium properly from weight.

Between Pompeii porticum, Pompeia, and Pompeiana. Pompeii is his own [portico] of Pompeius; Pompeia is public; Pompeiana, if it passes to another house.

Between Populus and plebs. Because populus is the whole together with the senate and Roman citizens, plebs is only the more lowly multitude.

Between Partem and partim. Partem is a noun, partim is an adverb.

Between Postremum and posteriorem. Postremus is used of many, posterior of two.

Between Principium and initium. Principium is the first part; initium is the beginning of each thing that begins.

Between Pendent and pendunt. Pendent are those who are suspended, pendunt those weighing something.

Between Pene and pene. Pene is an adverb; pene is the most shameful part of the body.

On the letter Q.

Between Quatenus and quatinus. Quatenus is an adverb, quatinus a causal conjunction, as if you were to say: Quatinus you do not entice this without a blow, behold blows for you. But quatenus is an adverb either of time or of place; of time when we say: Quatenus you will carry on the matter in this way.

Between Quoniam and quia. Quoniam is placed first, and thus binds the sense that follows, as: quoniam you say, I say. Quia is placed after, and confirms the preceding sense, as: Know that I have learned.

Between Quamdudum and jamdudum. Quamdudum belongs to one asking, jamdudum to one answering.

Between Quæritur and quiritur. Quiritur is used of imploring, quæritur of inquiring.

Between Questus and quæstus. Quæstus is of gain, questus of tears.

Between Quæ and que. Quæ is a pronoun, but que is a conjunction.

Between Quod and quot. If quod is written with a d, it is a personal pronoun; if quot, it is a number.

Concerning the letter R.

Between Recens and novum. Recens is born; novum is made. Whence also Virgil: Milk is never new to me in summer, nor lacking in the cold.

Between Religionem and fidem. Fides is the belief by which we confess God, religio is the worship which we who believe offer to him. Now fides is so called from the fact that what has been agreed between both parties is done. Religio is likewise said, as it were, between God and man, because by it men are bound by the bond of serving for the worship of the divinity. Now religio consists in virtue, but superstitio in unlawful worship.

Between Rationale and rationabile. Rationale applies both to an angel and to a man; rationabile is what is done or said with reason.

Between Rusticus and rusticeanus. Rusticus can be said of a laborer, rusticanus of a father of a household.

Between Rusticitas and rusticatio. Rusticitas is of manners, rusticatio of work.

Between Ratio and ratiocinatio. Ratio is a movement of the mind, able to discern or connect in the things that are said; ratiocinatio, however, is a reasonable and subtle disputation, and a thought straining from certain things to the investigation of uncertain ones.

Between Regium and regale. Regium is of the king himself, regale is worthy of a king. So also regia and regalis. Regia is the house in which he is, regalis is worthy of a king.

Between Rubor, robur, robor. Rubor is of color, robur of virtue, robor of a tree.

Between Reptilia and repentia. Reptilia are of the waters, repentia of the earth.

Between Rivus, fons, torrens, and fluvius. Rivus comes into being suddenly; fons is the head and the course into which natural water flows, torrens is a headlong rush of rainwater, fluvius is a course of water generally.

Concerning the letter S.

Between sidera, astra, stellae, and signa. Sidera are those by which sailors consider what counsel to direct toward their course; astra, however, are great stars, like Orion; stellae, however, are manifold ones, like the Hyades and the Pleiades; a signum, however, is that in which the image of a living creature is formed, like Taurus, Scorpio, and the like.

Between sempiternum and perpetuum the difference is this: that sempiternity pertains to God, perpetuity to angels or to the souls of men. For the first has always been, nor does it ever cease to be; the second began to be, but does not cease to be perpetual.

Between sensus and intellectus. Sensus is referred to nature, intellectus to art.

Between sacrum, religiosum, and sanctum. We call sacrum that which pertains to God; religiosum that which pertains to just men; sanctum, however, that by which something is sanctioned, and by the violation of which a penalty is incurred. Sacrum, however, is also sanctum, but sanctum is not forthwith sacrum. Likewise sanctum is placed in a good sense; sacrum, however, signifies two things, both good and evil: good, as in this passage (Virgil, Eclogues 1): "Among the well-known rivers and the sacred springs"; evil, as in: "The accursed hunger for gold" (Aeneid, book III). And: "The accursed gates are opened" (Aeneid, book II). And: "The accursed pimp" (Plautus). And: "The accursed goat" (Ovid). Whence also the horrible ulcer is called sacred fire. Alma, however, is said from alendo, "nourishing." Whence also among the pagans Ceres was called alma, the discoverer of foods.

Between the wise man and the prudent man the distinction is usually drawn thus: that he is called wise who searches out the understanding of eternal things, but prudent who [understands] those things which are experienced by the senses of the body.

Between the foolish, the fatuous, and the stupid. Some of the ancients consider him fatuous who understands neither what he himself says nor what others say; but foolish, one duller of heart. Whence Afranius says: I, he says, consider myself foolish, I do not think myself fatuous. That is, of dulled senses indeed, yet not of none. But stupid is so called as though stony, as though dull-witted.

Between savage and cruel. Savage in wrath, cruel in blood.

Between stuprum, incest, and adultery. Stuprum with a virgin, incest with a parent or a widow, adultery with a married woman. But incest is called as though unchaste.

Between satiety and fullness. Satiety comes from a varied kind of spectacles, but fullness is of foods.

Between arrogance and pride. Arrogance is empty glory concerning what each one is. But pride is a mind's exaltation, going beyond, concerning what is not. But the difference of pride is twofold: one which casts down spiritual and highest men through the boasting of virtues, the other which makes carnal men disobedient toward the authority of elders. But it is called pride, because it wishes to be above what it is.

Between the knowing man and the sciolist. The knowing man is experienced in knowledge and in affairs; the sciolist is a pretender to knowledge and experience, and is the opposite of the knowing man; and whatever another may know, he himself would wish to seem to know: or he who professes himself to know all things, or even to foretell future things.

Between the filthy and the bastard. The filthy man is not only impure but also savage; the bastard, however, is one born of an uncertain father and a widowed mother, as it were only the son of a bastard. For the ancients called the female nature "spurium." Some call these same men "favonii," because certain animals are thought to conceive by drawing in the breath of the favonius.

Between the criminal, the accursed, and the vicious. The grammarians say that the criminal is he in whom a crime is committed; as Cicero: you criminal, who, subdued and prostituted by those things. The accursed, however, is he through whom it is committed; as Terence: accursed woman, you have entrusted the sheep to the wolf. The vicious is he who commits it; as the same author: I, wretched woman, unwillingly endured that vicious man. But the authors do not observe these distinctions everywhere.

Between salus and salubritas. Salus is the soundness of the body; salubritas is a cause conducive to salus, through which health is either preserved or restored.

Between super and supra there is this difference: super is what overhangs; supra is what has something beneath it. Likewise super is sometimes taken to mean "excessively" or "sufficiently."

Between subter and subtus. Subter is what is pressed down by something higher and trampled underfoot; subtus is what is set low and is not reached from higher up.

Between supremi and supprimi. Supremi means both "highest" and "lowest"; supprimi, however, means "to be hidden."

Between sumere and accipere. We sumimus for ourselves; we accipimus from another. For when we give, one should say "Accipe"; when we allow someone to take it himself, we say "Sume." Likewise we sumimus by ourselves, we accipimus from those willing, we tollimus from those unwilling. Likewise auferimus: we assume by right whatever we have given by command; eripimus by force.

Between sperare and exspectare. We exspectare both good things and bad; but we sperare only good things. Yet Virgil, in a wondrous way, separates the proper meaning of this word from its own signification, saying (Aeneid IV): Hunc ego si potui tantum sperare dolorem — "If I could sperare such great grief"; whereas everything that the mind shrinks from is more rightly called timere. But the grammarians explain this, saying: "He said sperare for timere." Lucan too, making this distinction, says: Liceat sperare timenti — "Let it be permitted to one who fears to sperare."

Between scire and nosse. Scire is to render an account of what you have learned; nosse is merely to report what you have heard.

Between simulare and dissimulare. We dissimulare things that are known; we simulare things that are unknown. For he who feigns that he knows what he does not know, simulat; but he who says that he does not know what he does know, dissimulat. Whence also Sallust: Ille simulator incerti, ac certi dissimulator erat — "That man was a simulator of the uncertain, and a dissimulator of the certain."

Between sistere, and consistere, and assistere. Sistere is sometimes to resist, or to prohibit, that is, one who makes some thing stand in a place. As Virgil: Sistere aquam fluviis — "To make the water stand in the rivers." But assistere is both before one person and in the presence of many; consistere is to be present in the middle.

Between servire and inservire. Servire applies only to masters; inservire to anyone's commands.

Between spirare and exspirare. Spirare is to live, exspirare to die.

Between surgere and exurgere, and the rest. One surgit from a place, exsurgit from sleep, insurgit to vengeance, consurgit to aid.

Between subjicitur and supponitur. Subjicitur quickly, supponitur slowly.

Between simul and semel. Semel pertains to number, as “once, twice”; simul to gathering together, as “men crowded together are borne together into arms.”

Between sepulcrum and monumentum. Sepulcrum is only the mound of the dead; monumentum, however, is now a sepulcrum, now the history of deeds done: so called because it admonishes the mind, either to the memory of the deceased or to the recollection of a written matter. Further, tumulus is twofold: now it is called swelling earth, now a sepulcrum. Sepulcrum, moreover, is named from the buried one. The buried one, indeed, because he is without palpitation or pulse, that is, without motion. Cadaver, however, is named from falling.

Between sacrificium and hostia there was this ancient distinction: a sacrificium was a voluntary offering, whereas a hostia was what was immolated after enemies had been conquered. This was also called a victima. Some think it was called victima because it falls struck by a blow, or because it is led to the altars by bonds.

Between sedes and throni. Sedes is not only of one but of many. For solium is of one only, and of kings; sedes is proper to anyone. Solium, moreover, is so called either from the sitting of one alone or from solidity. The Latins call it solium, the Greeks thronos. But sedes are so called because among the ancient Romans there was no custom of reclining. Hence even consedere is said in the ancient manner. For the ancients dined sitting. Later, as Varro says, from the custom of the Roman people, men began to recline, women to sit. Because it was shameful for a woman to recline.

Between servus and famulus. Servi are those captured in war, as it were preserved; just as a mancipium is from enemies, as it were captured by hand. Famuli, however, are those born from their own households.

Between servitus and servitium. Servitus is the condition of serving; servitium is the number of those serving.

Between socer and socrus. We call the man socer and the woman socrus.

Between similitudo and figura. Similitudo is when an image is either painted or formed according to some visible appearance. Figura is when an image is expressed by the impression of some form, as if a likeness were taken in wax from a ring, or if a potter impressed his hand and some face into clay and by shaping made a figure.

Between sanguis and cruor. Sanguis is while it remains in the body; once poured out, it becomes cruor. Cruor is so called from cruditas, whence also crudelitas and crudus are named. Others say that cruor is of sacrificial victims, sanguis of men. As Virgil says: You appeased the winds with blood, and with a slain virgin; that is, with the blood of a slain virgin.

Between sinus and gremium. We call sinus the fold of a curved garment, gremium the inner part of a gathered one.

Between senium and senectus. Senectus is the heavier age succeeding after youth; senium, however, is the final age coming after gravity. So too senex and senior. For senior is still more green. As that Virgilian line: "Already senior, but the god's old age is raw and green." And Terence: "By what right I have acted as the more youthful; not by any means more a youth, but less." As senior, less senex. Senecta, however, is the lot itself, or the condition attaching to old age.

Between sonus and sonitus. Sonus is whatever is heard as perceptible; sonitus, however, is the confusion of the voice of trumpets.

Spolia belongs to those despoiling, exuviae to those despoiled.

Between stilla and gutta the grammarian Palaemon distinguishes thus: A gutta, he says, stands; a stilla falls.

Between statio and portus. Statio is where ships stand for a time; portus, where they winter. For portus is a place unknown from the approach of winds, where they are accustomed to set up winter quarters.

Between serenum and tranquillum. For serenum can be referred to the sky, not to the sea. For we call the sky serenum, the sea tranquillum.

Between saxa and lapides. Saxa are only the hardest stones, for lapis is both hard and soft, as is petra.

Between specus and antrum. The Latins call it specus, the Greeks antrum. These are places from which voices, rebounding, return an image.

Between semita, callis, and trames. A semita is for people, while a callis is for cattle or wild beasts. A callis is also called a narrow way, so named from calcando. Tramites, however, are crossways in the fields; properly, then, a callis is a narrow path, hardened by the hooves of cattle. A semita is, as it were, a half-way (semis via). A semita is so called because one vehicle can go along it. Its double action is called this because it holds two, or because of the meeting of vehicles going and coming.

Succipere is to take up something bodily that falls from above; suscipere is to take up a matter incorporeally. Suspicere is to look upward, or to reverence.

Between simulare and dissimulare. One who simulates wishes to be seen doing what he does not do; one who dissimulates does not wish to be seen doing what he does.

Between somnus and somnium. Somnus is that by which we sleep; somnium is that which we see while sleeping.

Between sum and suum. Sum is a verb; suum is a pronoun.

Between saevit and sevit. Saevit means "he is angry"; sevit means "he sows" — it speaks of a sower.

Between suus and sus. Suus is a pronoun; sus is an animal.

Between Syra and sura. Syra is a woman of her own people; sura is a part of the foot.

Between sartor and sarcinatorem. Sartor is one who hoes a field; sarcinatorem is one who mends clothes.

Between similem and simulantem. Similem means "such a one"; simulantem means "one pretending to be such."

Between strenuum and exteruum. Strenuum means "strong"; externum we call "foreign."

Between statum and staturam. Statum means a question or a stage garment; staturam means the quantity of any thing.

Between scripturam and lectionem. Lectio lies in the work, scriptura in the feeling, or in the picture.

Concerning the letter T.

Between terram, tellurem, and humum. Terra is rough and uncultivated; tellus is fruitful; humus, however, is lower, and downward, and moist. Whence also the humati, that is, the buried. Generally, however, terra is everywhere, but humus is not everywhere. Even in walls there is terra, that is, in bricks, and there is no humus. Humus, however, is moist earth, and is named from humor, just as terra is so called because it parches with natural dryness, and tellus because we take its fruits.

Between temperantia and temperatio the distinction is this: temperantia belongs to minds, temperatio to things.

Between timens and timidus. Timidus is one who is always afraid; timens, however, is one who fears for a time, from some cause. By this same understanding pavidus and pavens, providus and providens, superbus and superbiens, languidus and languens, furibundus and furens, and other such pairs are distinguished.

Between tremulus and tremens. Tremulus is so by nature, tremens for a time.

Between temeritas and audacia. Temeritas is said to be without counsel; audacia, after counsel.

Between tum and tunc. Tum is of future time; tunc, of past.

Between tribuere and attribuere. We tribuimus when we give something; we attribuimus when we distribute ranks and duties.

Between tulit, abstulit, and sustulit. Tulit is he who bears; abstulit is he who took away from another; sustulit is he who bore it up.

Between tumidum and turgidum. The body of a sick man tumet. A corpse turget.

Between testor, contestor, and obtestor. Testor very often pertains to an oath, as Virgil says, "I call the stars to witness"; contestor, however, pertains to judges, obtestor to adversaries.

Between terga and tergora. Terga are a man's, because in the singular it makes tergum; tergus, however, is of four-footed animals. Hence in the plural tergora means hides.

Between tumultus and bellum. Bellum is a war arisen against enemies; tumultus, however, is stirred up by a domestic designation. This is also called seditio. For seditio is a withdrawal of citizens. For because some go apart to one side and others to another, it is called seditio. Others think it is called seditio because of dissension of minds, which the Greeks call diastasis.

Between turbidum and turbulentum. Turbidum is from nature; turbulentum is made so.

Between terrenum, terrestre, and terrosum. We call terrenum a work; terrestre, as maritimum; terrosum, however, is a sandy kind of grain.

Between tuus and tus. Tuus is a pronoun, while tus is a pigment.

Between tum and tuum. Tum is an adverb, tuum a pronoun.

Between tempore and tempori. Tempore is in the ablative case; tempori is an adverb.

Between tristitia and maestitia. Maestitia is of the heart, tristitia of the countenance. Therefore we call him maestus, or grieving, in mind, and tristis in appearance. Likewise maestitia is of time, and sometimes arises from some accidental grief. Tristitia, however, is a perpetual vice of nature.

Concerning the letter V.

Between vetus and antiquum. Vetus is reckoned by years, antiquum by ages.

Between virtus and fortitudo. Virtus is in the vigor and disposition of the mind, of which fortitudo of the mind is a part. It is one of the four virtues, although the strength of the body is also called fortitudo.

Between vecors and vesanus. Vecors is of an evil heart, just as vesanus is not rightly sound.

Between velocitas and celeritas. Velocitas is of the feet, celeritas of the minds.

Between Vastitas and vastitudo. Vastitas belongs to the body; vastitudo is solitude.

Between Voluptas and voluntas. Voluntas is the desire for a thing not yet obtained, while voluptas is the delight in a thing obtained, whether good or bad.

Between Verbera and flagella. Verbera is any kind of whip, for flagella properly are of rods, and they are called this because they are driven and sound by a blowing.

Between Valetudo and infirmitas. Valetudo can be prosperous or adverse; infirmitas is always hostile.

Between Vulnus and ulcus. Vulnus refers to the mind, ulcus to an injury of the body. Likewise vulnus is a fresh wound of the body, while ulcus is an inveterate wound.

Between Verbum and sermo. Verbum is one part of speech, according to the grammarians. For sermo is speech of very many words. But sermo is said from serendo, which we with a preposition call from disserendo. Hence also the sermo of Saint Hilary and Augustine is spoken of, that is, the dissertio of Hilary and Augustine.

Between Ultra and citra. Ultra means to that place or further; citra means here, to us, within us.

Between ulcisci and vindicare. We avenge (ulciscimur) an injury that has been done; we vindicate (vindicamus) so that it not be done.

Between videre, aspicere, and intueri. We see (videmus) by nature, we look at (aspicimus) by will, we gaze upon (intuemur) with care.

Between veneunt and vendunt. Those who sell (vendunt) are those who offer goods for sale; those who are sold (veneunt) are those who are bought and sold.

Between volo, opto, and cupio. Volo is less than opto; opto is less than cupio.

Between unum and unicum. Unus is one out of many; unicus is alone. Thus solus is counted as one, while unicus is confined within number.

Between unum and solum. Unus belongs to number; solus is understood as one out of many.

Between uter and utrum. For if we say, "Utrum vis" ("which of the two do you want"), it signifies choosing either this or that. Uter, however, is used of persons, as for example: "Uter vult, veniat ad me" ("whichever of the two wishes, let him come to me"), that is, the one of the two who wishes.

Between urbs and civitas Cicero distinguishes thus: that urbs signifies the walls of the civitas, and civitas the inhabitants of the urbs. For he wrote to Dolabella as follows: "You freed the urbs from danger, the civitas from fear." Urbs is thought to be named either from urbus, which the ancients called a plow or furrow, or from orbis, whose image the commonwealth contains within itself. Furthermore, oppidum pertains to the inhabitants, civitas to the laws, urbs to both.

Between man (vir) and human being (homo). A man (vir) is male, not female; a human being (homo) is both male and female. Woman (femina) is a natural term; mulier is the general term; virgo is the specific term, or nupta, or else the names of age are added.

Between countenance (vultus) and face (facies). The face is the natural, unchanging appearance of the mouth; the countenance, however, varies and changes according to circumstances and times, and according to the affection of the mind is now glad, now sad. Hence those who often change their countenance are called vultuosi. And so Lucilius, as if distinguishing these, says: What a face, what a countenance the man has. But we also speak of the countenance of heaven and the countenance of the sea, because the sea is often changed into various motions by the blasts of the winds, and the countenance of heaven is changed from light into darkness, and from clear into cloudy, just as the countenances of men change with their minds.

Between virgin (virgo) and virago. A virgin is one who does not know a man; a virago, however, is one who acts the man, that is, does manly works. But not only virgins are viragines, but also corrupted women who do manly things are rightly called viragines.