De Grammatica

ON GRAMMAR, BOOK ONE.

CHAPTER ONE. — The endings of nouns. And first, those that end in vowels.

All nouns end in thirteen letters: five vowels, a, e, i, o, u; six semivowels, l, m, n, r, s, x; and two mutes, c, t. In a, of the masculine gender, as Seneca, Catilina, Sulla, Uva, Cinna, Pansa; Greek, Sosia, Pareta; African, Jugurtha, Micipsa. In a, of the feminine gender, femina, musa, regula, norma, forma; and the like. In a, of the neuter gender, only Greek words are found, thema, schema, and one Latin name of a river, Turia; as Sallust says, The river Turia. (In the Jugurthine War.) In a, of the common gender, advena, convena, indigena, Trojugena; and the like. In a, of the epicene gender, vipera, aquila, musca, locusta, ulula; and the like. We have spoken of the letter a; now of e. Of the vowel e no Latin noun is found of the masculine gender, unless joined with a preposition, as proconsule, propraetore. Therefore, joined with a preposition, they become Latin, as I said: propraetore, proquaestore. For the ancients said proconsul in the nominative case, observing that no Latin noun of the masculine gender ends in the letter e in the nominative case. In e, of the feminine gender, no Latin noun is found, but only Greek ones: as Andromache, Niobe, Libye, Hecate, Euterpe, whose genitive ends in es: as Andromaches, Niobes, Libyes, Hecates, Euterpes. But these we treat among the Greek words. In e, of the neuter gender in the nominative, monile, sedile, cubile, and the rest which a little later we shall set down in the rule of the neuter gender through all nouns.

No noun is of the common gender ending in i, and likewise none of the epicene gender. Now let us discuss the letter i and what genders it contains in the nominative. No noun of the masculine gender ends in i; none of the feminine; one of the neuter, gummi, and it does; none of the common; one of every gender, as frugi, nihili: it is declined thus, hic vir frugi, femina frugi, mancipium frugi; in the genitive it will likewise make frugi, hujus viri frugi, hujus feminae frugi, hujus mancipii frugi; and so through all the cases we say frugi. Thus nihili is declined, hic nihili vir, haec nihili mulier, hoc nihili mancipium. In this sound of the nominative all the cases are declined: thus in the plural, viri nihili, feminae nihili, mancipia nihili. From the epicene gender likewise none ends in i. From the letter o the nominative is terminated by a masculine appellative, as ligo, ligonis. From a proper name, as Cato, Cicero, Maro, Nero, Tubero, and other such. From a feminine appellative, as vertigo, indago, ferrago, siligo (in Juvenal it is read thus: but she who is led in by mules and is cherished with so many medicaments, and receives morsels of boiled and sodden siligo, shall be called a face or an ulcer), sartago, virago, lanugo, aurugo, erugo, crepido (in Juvenal, No crepido is free, nowhere a bridge and part of the covering), and lolia. From a feminine proper name, Carthago: but a foreign one, as Dido.

Ino, Io, Alecto, Celaeno, Clio, Manto; whose genitive ends in -us: Didus, Inus, Ius, Alectus, Celenus, Clius, Mantus: but let us treat this with the Greeks. From the neuter, no nominative ends in o. From the common gender: fullo, latro, caupo, etc. From the epicene: struthio, hirundo, hirudo, gurgulio, bufo; and the like. From the vowel a, only the neuter, which in the singular is indeclinable and in the plural is declined, as cornu, veru, genu, tonitru: all cases in the singular are pronounced with this sound, as we said; in the plural they are declined, cornua, verua, genua; in the genitive, horum cornuum, veruum, genuum: and you will decline the rest according to the rule of versus, fluctuum.

CHAPTER II. — On nouns that end in semivowels and their genders.

We have spoken of the five vowels, with which the nominative ends; now let us speak of the semivowels. The letter l, a nominative ending in it among masculine appellatives: hic sal; among proper nouns, Sol. Among feminines, only one name of a matron, Tanaquil. Among neuters, as mel, fel. Among common nouns, vigil, pugil: whence also Terence concerning a maiden, "They say she is a boxer" (In Eun. act. 2, scene 3, v. ). Among epicenes there is no noun. M, a nominative ending in it, among masculines there is no Latin one. Among feminines, Glycerium, Phanium, Dorcium, Philocomasium. Among neuters, however, templum, telum, tectum, and others whose plurals are easy. Among common nouns none ends in it: so also among epicenes. Now let us treat of the semivowel n.

A nominative ending in the letter n: from masculines, flamen, pecten, lien, which is splen. From feminines, siren, plural sirenes. From neuters, carmen, germen, gramen, and other such words, which we shall treat after the rules of the neuter gender. From common nouns, a nominative ending in n: tubicen, tibicen, fidicen, lyricen, cornicen, who plays on the horns. From epicene nouns, oscen, that is, from those which give auguries, attagen. Now concerning the semivowel r. A nominative ending in the letter r: from masculines, as Caesar, Arar, Nar, victor, tutor, sopor, moeror, and others which are easy both in appellatives and in proper names; from feminines, arbor, soror; from neuters, marmor, aequor, and others; from common nouns, pauper, acer, alacer, memor, auctor; from epicene nouns, passer, accipiter, anser. Now we have dealt with the semivowel letter thus far. A nominative ending in the letter s: from masculines, justus, doctus, pius; from feminines, dos, sors, mors, and the like; from neuters, vulnus, pectus, pecus, and the rest, which will soon be treated by rule; from common nouns, sacerdos, impos, compos, similis, nubilis, agilis; from every gender, as nugas, etc. We shall treat these more fully a little later. From epicene nouns, tigris, mus, leptis, etc. Now concerning the semivowel letter x. A nominative in the letter x: from masculines, vertex, cortex, pumex; from proper names, Pollux; from feminines, nex, prex, fex, pax, fax, and others; from neuters, no noun unless it is joined to every gender, as felix.

CHAPTER III.—On those words which end in mutes.

There remain two mute letters, c and t. A nominative ending in the letter c keeps the masculine gender, as alec; it keeps the neuter, as lac. A nominative ending in the letter t keeps the neuter gender, as caput, sinciput, semicaput.

CHAPTER IV.—On the termination and declension of nouns of the neuter gender.

Nouns of the neuter gender ending in the syllable um, as templum, are declined thus: in the singular, nominative hoc templum, genitive hujus templi, dative huic templo, accusative hoc templum, vocative o templum, ablative ab hoc templo; and in the plural, nominative hæc templa, genitive horum templorum, dative his templis, accusative hæc templa, vocative o templa, ablative ab his templis. By a similar declension all these run their course: telum, tectum, scamnum, bellum, monstrum, portentum, oppidum, carpentum, venenum, donum, bonum, malum, magnum, pessimum, parvum, frumentum, medicamentum, membrum, forum, metrum, porrum, tignum, plaustrum, claustrum, instrumentum, olivetum, vinetum, palmetum, quercetum, esculetum, lauretum, argumentum, sacrum, testamentum, jugerum, vinum—but now only in the singular, for the poets said vina—and cicera. So too oleum, hordeum, triticum, ferrum, viscum, aurum, argentum, plumbum, stannum, vitrum, electrum, and such things as are sold by weight or measure, are of this form.

CHAPTER III (continued). Neuter nouns ending in -ium, but these are written with two i's in the genitive, as hoc ingenium, huius ingenii; thus imperium, imperii; scrinium, scrinii; capitolium, capitolii; tentorium, tentorii; armarium, armarii; solarium, solarii; tectorium, tectorii; armamentarium, armamentarii; spatium, spatii; sacrarium, sacrarii; thus horarium, horarii; salarium, salarii; viridarium, viridarii; pomoerium, pomoerii; sacrificium, sacrificii; folium, folii; solium, solii; testimonium, testimonii; thus rosarium, rosarii; aviarium, aviarii; augurium, augurii; auspicium, auspicii; exitium, exitii; exsilium, exsilii; prodigium, prodigii; auxilium, auxilii; praesidium, praesidii; atrium, atrii; aucupium, aucupii; adiutorium, adiutorii; mancipium, mancipii; dolium, dolii. There is another form of the neuter gender which ends in -us, as hoc pecus: in the singular number, nominative hoc pecus, genitive huius pecoris, dative huic pecori, accusative hoc pecus, vocative o pecus, ablative ab hoc pecore; and in the plural, nominative haec pecora, genitive horum pecorum, dative his pecoribus, accusative haec pecora, vocative o pecora, ablative ab his pecoribus.

We shall decline according to this pattern: ulcus, ulcera; facinus, facinora; vellus, vellera; viscus, viscera; rus, rura; jus, jura; nemus, nemora; tergus, tergora; pectus, pectora; genus, genera; pondus, pondera; corpus, corpora; decus, decora; funus, funera; fenus, fenora; olus, olera; littus, littora; opus, opera; rudus, rudera; tus, tura; tempus, tempora; foedus, foedera; stercus, stercora; onus, onera; latus, latera. There is another kind of the neuter gender which contains nouns ending in -ur: as hoc murmur in the nominative, G. huius murmuris, D. huic murmuri, A. hoc murmur, V. o murmur, A. ab hoc murmure; and in the plural, nominative haec murmura, G. horum murmurum, D. his murmuribus, A. haec murmura, V. o murmura, A. ab his murmuribus. You will decline similar words according to this pattern, as ebur, ebora; femur, femora; sulfur, sulfura; fulgur, fulgura. But not many are found from this pattern, since few are of the neuter gender that end in -or: as marmor in the nominative, G. huius marmoris, D. huic marmori, A. hoc marmor, V. o marmor, A. ab hoc marmore; and in the plural, N. haec marmora, G. horum marmorum, D. his marmoribus, A. haec marmora, V. o marmora, A. ab his marmoribus. Thus aequor, aequora; cor, corda. Another kind of the neuter gender which contains nouns ending in the syllable -ar: as hoc far in the nominative, G. huius farris, D. huic farri, A. hoc far, V. o far, A. ab hoc farre. In the plural it has only three cases. N.

These farra, in the accusative these farra, in the vocative O farra: it has, therefore, no genitive, dative, and ablative: whence they are said to be in the plural, that is, of three cases, as are jura, for we do not say horum jurium, bis juribus, nor arum aeribus, nor mellum mellibus, and a few other such words; for they are not many: so neither can we say horum farrum in the genitive, or in the dative his farribus. You will therefore decline this form in the singular number only: hoc nectar nectaris, laser laseris, and instar, which is a likeness, but it has only three cases, the nominative, accusative, and vocative, and is of the singular number only. Another species of the neuter gender which contains all words ending in cr, but of the singular number only: N. hoc piper, G. hujus piperis, D. huic piperi, A. hoc piper, V. o piper, A. ab hoc pipere. To this form you will decline in the singular number only, ver: N. hoc ver, G. hujus veris, D. huic veri, A. hoc ver, V. o ver, ab hoc verr. Thus you will decline hoc siler, as Virgil says, Molle siler (Georg. lib. 2, v. 13). Similarly you will also decline juger. But it has a plural, as juger jugera, according to the ancients who said jugerum; uber ubera, tuber tubera: and in these, as I said, are the names of a few things. Another species through os, as ipsum os ora, whence osculum, but this we make long, the other we shorten, from that which is ossa: it is declined in the singular, in the nominative hoc os, G. hujus ossis, D. huic ossi, A. hoc os, V. o os, A. ab hoc osse: and in the plural N. haec ossa, G.

of these ossium, in the dative his ossibus, in the accusative hæc ossa, in the vocative o ossa, in the ablative ab his ossibus. Another species of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in e, such as monile: in the nominative hoc monile, in the genitive hujus monilis, in the dative huic monili, in the accusative hoc monile, in the vocative o monile, in the ablative ab hoc monili: and in the plural, in the nominative hæc monilia, in the genitive horum monilium, in the dative his monilibus, in the accusative hæc monilia, in the vocative o monilia, in the ablative ab his monilibus. Similarly you will decline sedile sedilia, præsepe præsepia, collare collaria, ducale ducalia, molle mollia, grave gravia, vile vilia, mile milia, suave suavia, vitale vitalia, morale moralia, lene lenia, leva levia, ancile ancilia: of which Virgil says, Lævaque ancile gerebat (Aeneid, book 7, verse ): faciile facilia, nobile nobilia, agile agilia, mare maria; but in the plural it has only three cases, the nominative, accusative, and vocative: it has no genitive, dative, and ablative: for we do not say in the genitive horum marium, or in the dative his maribus, or in the ablative ab his maribus. Thus you will also decline other nouns similar to this form. In this rule the ablative ends in i, not in e, because the neuter gender never has four similar cases, as would make in the nominative hac monile, and in the accusative hoc monile, and in the vocative o monile, and in the ablative ab hoc monile; but ab hoc monili: hence Virgil, Instrato saxa cubili (Georgics, book 3, verse 230): ab hoc cubili: thus also, Sacra mari colitur (Aeneid, book 3, verse 73): likewise, Hortatur pater ire mari (Ibid. verse

Likewise, "Tenui de vimine" (Georgics 5.166); likewise, "Crudeli vulnere" (Eclogues 1.20); likewise, "Lethali vulnere" (Aeneid 9.580); likewise, "Dulci ex ore coruscent" (Aeneid 12.802). And when we say "Nobili genere natus," not "nobile." So then you will observe in a neuter noun that ends in the nominative singular in e, that the ablative regularly ends in i by a perpetual rule. Another species of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in al, such as animal. In the nominative, hoc animal; in the genitive, hujus animalis; in the dative, huic animali; in the accusative, hoc animal; in the vocative, o animal; in the ablative, ab hoc animali. And in the plural: in the nominative, hæc animalia; in the genitive, horum animalium; in the dative, his animalibus; in the accusative, hæc animalia; in the vocative, o animalia; in the ablative, ab his animalibus. By this pattern you will decline tribunal, tribunalia; lupercal, lupercalia, which are the sacred rites of that god who is called Pan: whence also Virgil, concerning the place itself, "Et gelida monstrat sub rupe Lupercal" (Aeneid 8.343). Another species of the neuter, which contains nouns ending in el, such as mel: in the nominative, hoc mel; in the genitive, hujus mellis; in the dative, huic melli; in the accusative, hoc mel; in the vocative, o mel; in the ablative, ab hoc melle. Thus you will decline: in the nominative, hoc fel; in the genitive, hujus fellis; in the dative, huic felli; in the accusative, hoc fel; in the vocative, o fel; in the ablative, ab hoc felle. But in the plural number it runs through only three cases: the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative. Another species of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in the syllable en: in the nominative, hoc crimen; in the genitive, hujus criminis; in the dative, huic crimini; in the accusative, hoc crimen; in the vocative, o crimen; in the ablative, ab hoc crimine. And in the plural, in the nominative...

these crimes, G. of these crimes, D. to these crimes, A. these crimes, v. o crimes, A. from these crimes. According to this rule, if you decline a thousand such words: carmen carminis, numen flamen flaminis, agmen agminis, acumen acuminis, gramen graminis, flumen fluminis, stramen straminis, lumen luminis, semen seminis, liquamen liquaminis, fulmen fulminis, rumen ruminis, bitumen bituminis, gluten glutinis, legumen leguminis, fundamen fundaminis, tegimen tegiminis, munimen muniminis, levamen levaminis, specimen speciminis, but it does not admit a plural; likewise subtegimen subtegiminis. Another species of the neuter gender, that is, indeclinable nouns, such as genu: N. hoc genu, G. huius genu, D. huic genu, A. hoc genu, v. o genu, A. ab hoc genu; and in the plural, nominative haec genua, G. horum genuum, D. his genibus, A. haec genua, v. o genua, A. ab his genibus. According to this form you will also decline hoc cornu, as we said above, cornu cornua, veru verua, which are the iron rods of butchers; of which Virgil says, "Verubusque trementia figunt" (Id. lib. 1, v. 212): tonitru tonitrua. But the declension of such nouns is found very rarely. Another species of the neuter gender, which we discussed above, which ends in four nouns of two endings, C and I, such as caput and sinciput, lac and alec; but these two admit the plural number.

The neuter gender also ends in a, but it is assigned to Greek nouns, as thema themata, forcuma teremata, schema schemata, emblema emblemata, theorema theoremata, boethema boethemata, and others. Likewise let us remember that individual letters are of the neuter gender both in Greek and in Latin. For we say unum alpha, unum beta, unum gamma, and so the other letters; in the plural duo alpha, duo beta, duo gamma; thus tria alpha, tria beta, tria gamma: hence comes that phrase, that is, tria cappa pessima, concerning Cornelius Sulla, concerning Cornelius Cinna, concerning Cornelius Lentulus: for these men were designated by three letters in the Sibylline books. There is also one Greek noun of the neuter gender in a, as the river Turia, as we said above.

CHAPTER V. — On the determination and declension of nouns of the common gender

The common gender ending in a, as advena: it is declined in the nominative hic et haec advena, in the genitive huius advenae, in the dative huic advenae, in the accusative hunc et hanc advenam, in the vocative o advena, in the ablative ab hoc et ab hac advena: in the plural, nominative hi et hae advenae, genitive horum et harum advenarum, dative his advenis, accusative hos et has advenas, vocative o advenae, ablative ab his advenis. According to this pattern you will decline Troiugena, indigena, incola, agricola, convena, caelicola, sacricola, publicola, terricola, orbicola, plebicola, Numida, Dalmata, ruricola, lucifiga, Persa, Romulida, etc. In the nominative ending in e and i it does not have the common gender, but in o, as latro: nominative hic et haec latro, genitive huius latronis, dative huic latroni, accusative hunc et hanc latronem, vocative o latro, ablative —

From this and from this latro: and in the plural, nominative hi and hae latrones, genitive horum and harum latronum, dative his latronibus, accusative hos and has latrones, vocative o latrones, ablative ab his latronibus. By this pattern you will decline homo, ganeo, degulo, caupo, fullo, nemo, helluo (which is also gluto), and others. But it has no example ending in u. In the nominative, then, the common gender ends in a short syllable, as comes: hic et haec comes, genitive huius comitis, dative huic comiti, accusative hunc et hanc comitem, vocative o comes, ablative ab hoc et ab hac comite; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae comites, genitive horum et harum comitum, dative his comitibus, accusative hos et has comites, vocative o comites, ablative ab his comitibus. By this pattern you will decline similar nouns, such as sospes, locuples, hospes (although Virgil said hospita, "hospita tellus," Aeneid book 3), miles, veles (that is, a soldier of light armor), interpres, ales, praepes, praes (that is, a surety), satelles, deses, praeses, dives, heres, caeles, caelites (those who make their way to heaven), indiges, indigetis, etc. It ends in is, as similis: nominative hic et haec similis, genitive huius similis, dative huic simili, accusative hunc et hanc similem, vocative o similis, ablative ab hoc et ab hac simili; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae similes, genitive horum et harum similium, dative his similibus, accusative hos et has similes, vocative o similes, ablative ab his similibus.

To this pattern are declined agilis, facilis, fragilis, viridis, mobilis, humilis, mitis, levis, mollis, civis, testis, hostis, tristis, fortis, stratus, frugalis, crudelis, inanis, gracilis, immanis, etc. It ends in -os, as sacerdos: nominative hic et haec sacerdos, genitive huius sacerdotis, dative huic sacerdoti, accusative hunc et hanc sacerdotem, vocative o sacerdos, ablative ab hoc et ab hac sacerdote; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae sacerdotes, genitive horum et harum sacerdotum, dative his sacerdotibus, accusative hos et has sacerdotes, vocative o sacerdotes, ablative ab his sacerdotibus. To this pattern are declined custos, impos, compos, nepos. It ends also in -us, as sus: nominative hic et haec sus, genitive huius suis, dative huic sui, accusative hunc et hanc suem, vocative o sus, ablative ab hoc et ab hac sue; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae sues, genitive horum et harum suum, dative his suibus, accusative hos et has sues, vocative o sues, ablative ab his suibus. It ends also in -er, as pauper: nominative hic et haec pauper, genitive huius pauperis, dative huic pauperi, accusative hunc et hanc pauperem, vocative o pauper, ablative ab hoc et ab hac paupere; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae pauperes, genitive horum et harum pauperum, dative his pauperibus, accusative hos et has pauperes, vocative o pauperes, ablative ab his pauperibus. To this pattern are declined also others, as acer, alacer, that is, glad. It ends as a common noun in -ex, as opifex: nominative hic et haec opifex, genitive huius opificis, dative huic opifici, accusative hunc et hanc opificem, vocative o opifex, ablative ab hoc et ab hac opifice; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae opifices, genitive

Of these craftsmen, masculine and feminine: dative his opificibus, accusative hos et has opifices, vocative o opifices, ablative ab his opificibus. To this pattern you will decline aurifex, artirex, judex, carnifex, index, vindex, auspex, aruspex, signifex, and others. The common gender ends in -eps, as princeps: it is declined thus: nominative hic et haec princeps, genitive hujus principis, dative huic principi, accusative hunc et hanc principem, vocative o princeps, ablative ab hoc et ab hac principe; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae principes, genitive horum et harum principum, dative his principibus, accusative hos et has principes, vocative o principes, ablative ab his principibus. Thus are declined manceps, particeps, municeps. But anceps and biceps and triceps, and quadriceps, multiceps, praeceps — these six nouns form their singular genitive contrary to the rule above with the syllable -tis, not -pis, as anceps ancipitis, biceps bicipitis, triceps tricipitis, quadriceps quadricipitis, multiceps multicipitis, praeceps praecipitis. But the reason they end in the syllable -tis, not -pis, as principis, mancipis, is that they come from the meaning of caput (head), while the former come from the meaning of capiendi (taking). For princeps is so called because he takes first (primus capiat), and manceps because he takes by hand (manu capiat). Anceps, however, is so called because it has a doubtful head, or a head inclined to either side. The common gender ends in the syllable -junx, as conjunx: nominative hic et haec conjunx. It ends in -ux, as hic et haec dux, redux. It ends in -eps, which indeed will return in every gender.

It ends in -ebs, like caelebs. One is called caelebs who does not have a wife, or she who does not have a husband: such are the deities in heaven? without a consort, if we do not attend to the beloved. In the nominative, hic and haec caelebs, in the genitive huius caelibis, in the dative huic caelibi, in the accusative hunc and hanc caelibem, in the vocative o caelebs, in the ablative ab hoc and ab hac caelibe: and in the plural, in the nominative hi and hae caelibes, in the genitive horum and harum caelibum, in the dative his caelibibus, in the accusative hos and has caelibes, in the vocative o caelibes, in the ablative ab his caelibibus. It also ends in -yx, like Phryx: in the nominative hic and haec Phryx, in the genitive huius Phrygis, in the dative huic Phrygi, in the accusative hunc and hanc Phrygem, in the vocative o Phryx, in the ablative ab hoc and ab hac Phryge: and in the plural, in the nominative hi and hae Phryges, in the genitive horum and harum Phrygum, in the dative his Phrygibus, in the accusative hos and has Phryges, in the vocative o Phryges, in the ablative ab his Phrygibus. It also ends in -us, like Ligus, which, similarly to Phryx, is a local name. In the nominative hic and haec Ligus, in the genitive huius Liguris, in the dative huic Liguri, in the accusative hunc and hanc Ligurem, in the vocative o Ligus, in the ablative ab hoc and ab hac Ligure: and in the plural, in the nominative hi and hae Ligures, in the genitive horum and harum Ligurum, in the dative his Liguribus, in the accusative hos and has Ligures, in the vocative o Ligures, in the ablative ab his Liguribus. The common gender ends in -il, like vigil: in the nominative hic and haec vigil, in the genitive huius vigilis, in the dative huic vigili, in the accusative hunc and hanc vigilem, in the vocative o vigil, in the ablative ab hoc and ab hac vigile: and in the plural, in the nominative hi and hae vigiles, in the genitive horum and harum vigilum, in the dative his vigilibus, in the accusative hos and has vigiles, in the vocative o vigiles, in the ablative ab his vigilibus.

To this rule you will decline hic et haec pugit. It ends in -ut, as exsul: nominative hic et haec exsul, genitive huius exsulis, dative huic exsuli, accusative hunc et hanc exsulem, vocative o exsul, ablative ab hoc et ab hac exsule; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae exsules, genitive horum et harum exsulum, dative his exsulibus, accusative hos et has exsules, vocative o exsules, ablative ab his exsulibus. To this form you will decline praesul, hic et haec praesul, since it is masculine, like consul. It ends in -ur, as fur: nominative hic et haec fur, genitive huius furis, dative huic furi, accusative hunc et hanc furem, vocative o fur, ablative ab hoc et ab hac fure; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae fures, genitive horum et harum furum, dative his furibus, accusative hos et has fures, vocative o fures, ablative ab his furibus. To this form you will decline augur, hic et haec augur. The common gender ends in -or, as maior, memor. But memor, if it follows another rule, does not admit the neuter in -ius, whereas maior admits it in the neuter maius. Nominative hic et haec memor, genitive huius memoris, dative huic memori, accusative hunc et hanc memorem, vocative o memor, ablative ab hoc et ab hac memore; and in the plural, nominative hi et hae memores, genitive horum et harum memorum, dative his memoribus, accusative hos et has memores, vocative o memores, ablative ab his memoribus. It also admits the neuter, but not under the rule of the common gender, as hoc memor, whence Virgil: "Then if any deity has regard for lovers joined in no equal bond, and is just and mindful of the suppliant." (Aeneid, book 4.)

It does not admit a plural, and therefore it is not of the common gender. For we do not say memora or memoria as divine names. You will decline auctor similarly in the singular nominative: hic et haec auctor, as Juno says, "Auctor ego audendi" (Id. lib. 12, v. 159): hi et hae auctores.

CHAPTER VI. — On the termination and declension of nouns of every gender.

Every gender ends in -ax, -ex, -ix, -os, -us, -ans, -ens, -ons, -ar, -ers, -ors, -us, -es. In -ax, as hic et haec et hoc pertinax, genitive huius pertinacis, dative huic pertinaci, accusative hunc et hanc pertinacem, et hoc pertinax, vocative o pertinax, ablative ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc pertinaci: and in the plural, nominative hi et hae pertinaces, et haec pertinacia, genitive horum et harum et horum pertinacium, dative his pertinacibus, accusative hos et has pertinaces, et haec pertinacia, vocative o pertinaces, et o pertinacia, ablative ab his pertinacibus. According to this form you will decline efficax, tenax, pervicax, dicax, sequax, rapax, mordax, capax, furax, emax, fallax, mendax, nugax, vivax. All these and similar nouns form their singular ablative in -i. Every gender also ends in -ex, according to the order of the rules arranged above, as simplex: nominative hic et haec et hoc simplex, genitive huius simplicis, dative huic simplici, accusative hunc et hanc simplicem, et hoc simplex, vocative o simplex, ablative ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc simplici: and in the plural, nominative hi et hae simplices, et haec simplicia, genitive horum et harum et horum simplicium, dative his simplicibus, accusative...

hos and has simplices, and haec simplicia, v. o simplices, and o simplicia, A. ab his simplicibus. To this form are declined duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quintuplex, sextuplex, septuplex, with m excluded, because septemplex is also Latin. which is declined as above. From the rule in -ix, as felix, which is declined thus: In the nominative hic et haec et hoc felix, G. huius felicis, D. huic felici, A. hunc et hanc felicem, et hoc felix, v. o felix, A. ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc felici, from the same gender of the neuter (but from proper names in -e it is ab hoc felice, and it is of the masculine gender): and in the plural, in the nominative hi et hae felices, et haec felicia, G. horum et harum et horum felicium, D. his felicibus, A. hos et has felices, et haec felicia, v. o felices et o felicia, A. ab his felicibus. To this rule is declined pernix, which means swift. From the rule in -ox, as ferox, is declined thus: In the nominative hic et haec et hoc ferox, G. huius ferocis, D. huic feroci, A. hunc et hanc ferocem, et hoc ferox, v. o ferox, A. ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc feroci: and in the plural, in the nominative hi et hae feroces, et haec ferocia, G. horum et harum et horum ferocium, D. his ferocibus, A. hos et has feroces, et haec ferocia, v. o feroces, et o ferocia, A. ab his ferocibus. To this form will be declined atrox, velox. From the rule in -ux, there is one noun, as trux: In the nominative hic et haec et hoc trux, G. huius trucis, D. huic truci, A.

this and this fierce one, and this fierce thing. v. o fierce one, A. by this and by this and by this fierce one, from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. these and these fierce ones, and these fierce things, G. of these and of these and of these fierce ones, D. to these fierce ones, A. these and these fierce ones, and these fierce things, v. o fierce ones and o fierce things, A. by these fierce ones. From the rule ans, as præstans: in the nominative this and this and this excellent one, G. of this excellent one, D. to this excellent one, A. this and this excellent one, and this excellent thing, v. o excellent one, A. by this and by this and by this excellent one, from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. these and these excellent ones, and these excellent things, G. of these and of these and of these excellent ones, D. to these excellent ones, A. these and these excellent ones, and these excellent things, v. o excellent ones, and o excellent things, A. by these excellent ones. To this form are declined amans, clamans, cantans, luctans, constans, prostans, regnans, pugnans, mirans, minans, miserans, æstuans, versans, and the like. From the rule cns, as amens: N. this and this and this senseless one, G. of this senseless one, D. to this senseless one, A. this and this senseless one, and this senseless thing, v. o senseless one, A. by this and by this and by this senseless one, likewise from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. these and these senseless ones, and these senseless things, G. of these and of these and of these senseless ones, D. to these senseless ones, A. these and these senseless ones, and these senseless things, v. o senseless ones and o senseless things, A. by these senseless ones.

To this form are declined demens, potens, impotens, praepotens, prudens, imprudens, pudens, impudens, frequens, infrequens, sedens, haerens, moriens, moerens, tenens, egens, ferens, cedens, saeviens, serviens, sapiens, incipiens, decipiens, and the like. By the rule of -ons, as sons, which signifies "harmful": N. hic et haec et hoc sons, G. huius sontis, D. huic sonti, A. hunc et hanc sontem, et hoc sons, v. o sons, A. ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc sonti, from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. hi et hae sontes, et haec sontia, G. horum et harum et horum sontium, D. his sontibus, A. hos et has sontes, et haec sontia, v. o sontes et o sontia, A. ab his sontibus. By this rule is declined insons, that is, "harmless." And these two are of every gender only. By the rule of -al, as par: N. hic et haec et hoc par, G. huius paris, D. huic pari, A. hunc et hanc parem, et hoc par, v. o par, A. ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc pari, from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. hi et hae pares, et haec paria, G. horum et harum et horum parium, D. his paribus, A. hos et has pares, et haec paria, v. o pares et o paria, A. ab his paribus. To this form are declined impar and suppar, which three alone are of every gender. By the rule of -ers, as iners: N. hic et haec et hoc iners, G. huius inertis, D. huic inerti, A. hunc et hanc inertem, et hoc iners, v. o iners, A. ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc inerti: and in the plural, N.

these and these inertes, and this inertia, c. of these and of these and of these inertium, D. to these inertibus, A. these and these inertes, and this inertia, v. o inertes and o inertia, A. by these inertibus. From the rule ors, as vecors: N. this and this and this vecors, G. of this vecordis, D. to this vecordi, A. this and this vecordem, and this vecors, v. o vecors, A. by this and by this and by this vecordi, from the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. these and these vecordes, and these vecordia, G. of these and of these and of these vecordium, D. to these vecordibus, A. these and these vecordes, and these vecordia, v. o vecordes and o vecordia, A. by these vecordibus. To this rule are declined excors, concors, discors, dissors. But these two, that is, consors and dissors, have tis in the genitive singular, as consortis, dissortis. Now dissors is said as of dissimilar sortis. From the rule aus, as vetus: it is declined thus: N. this and this and this vetus, G. of this veteris, D. to this veteri, A. this and this veterem, and this vetus, v. o vetus, A. by this and by this and by this veteri, from the sound of the neuter gender: and in the plural, N. these and these veteres, and these vetera, G. of these and of these and of these veterum, D. to these veteribus, A. these and these veteres, and these vetera, v. o veteres and o vetera, A. by these veteribus. This alone of nouns in us is of every gender. Es, as teres, which is round; it is declined this and this and this teres: now teres is said from aterendo.

From the rule, however, it is worthless; for all cases are declined with one sound through all genders.

CHAPTER VII. — Concerning nouns of the epicene gender, and the difference of the same gender from the common.

Now the epicene gender is that in which the sex is understood under one article, for example, hic passer: already under the one article which sounds as hic, there is also the female there; it is declined: N. hic passer, G. hujus passeris, D. huic passeri, A. hunc passerem, V. o passer, A. ab hoc passere; and in the plural: N. hi passeres, G. horum passerum, D. his passeribus, A. hos passeres, V. o passeres, A. ab his passeribus. But also hæc aquila: under the one article which sounds as hæc, we understand the masculine there as well; so also hæc tigris, under which sound the male is also understood. So also hæc hirundo: there you understand the male as well; so also hic struthio: there you understand the female as well; so also solex, stellio, musca. Therefore this is the difference between the common gender and the epicene: because in the common gender there are both men and beasts, but in the epicene only beasts; and because in the common gender there are both articles, that is, hic and hæc, which it shares with the noun, as hic and hæc canis; but the epicene shares a feminine noun with one masculine article, for when I say hic passer, under that very article which sounds as hic, the female is also understood. So in the article of the neuter gender, which is hoc pecus: under the article which sounds as hoc, the female is also understood, as Virgil says, Lenta salix felo pecori.

And although "pecus" is of the neuter gender, the feminine gender is also heard in it, when he said "felo pecori," that is, "pregnant."

CHAPTER VIII. — Concerning nouns of only the singular or only the plural number.

Now we must speak of nouns that are either of the singular number only, or of the plural number only, such as "cancelli," "manes," "penates." In the feminine, of the plural only, such as "thermae," "exsequiae," "insidiae," "divitiae," "nundinae"; in the names of cities, "Amyclae," "Thenae," "Athenae," "Syracusae," "Thebae," "Tuburnae," "Salda," "Ahiturx," "Macomades," "Cales," "Carreasi," "Relares," "Furnitum," which places are called "furni," and other similar names; in the neuter, of the singular only, such as "aurum," "argentum," "plumbum," "stannum," "piper," "triticum," "oleum," "hordeum," "vinum." Although Virgil gave "vina" (Georgics, book 2, v. 97), and Cicero more rarely, to the plural by poetic license, as "Serite hordea campis" (Id., book 1, v. 210); but only the nominative is declined. In the neuter, of the plural only, "castra," "moenia," "arma," "exta," that is, viscera; "Bactra," which is a city of Parthia; therefore this city too is of the neuter gender, of the plural number only.

Indeed there are nouns expressed by a double phrase, such as tribunus militum, praefectus iuris, praefectus fundis, praefectus annonae, praefectus vigilibus, plebiscitum, senatusconsultum: of these nouns one part is declined and the other is not. For example, in praefectus vigilibus the nominative itself is inflected through the cases: praefectus, praefecti, praefecto, praefectum, praefecte, a praefecto; but vigilibus remains as it is and is not inflected. Likewise senatusconsultum: hoc consultum, huius consulti, huic consulto, hoc consultum, o consultum, ab hoc consulto. But senatus is a genitive and is not inflected here. Concerning the noun, as fully as was fitting for a beginner, we have set it out. Now we must speak of the pronoun, which is the second of the eight parts of speech.

CHAPTER IX. — Concerning the pronoun.

It is therefore called a pronoun because it performs the function of a noun, as ille, iste, ipse. For just as by saying a noun we make a person clear, as Virgilius, so pronouns are properly of the same force when, with the noun left unsaid, we say, "Hic fecit," "iste fecit." Now pronouns are either definite, indefinite, or less than definite. Definite are those that indicate a certain person, as ego. Indefinite, as quis, quisque, quicumque, quaecumque, qui, aliqui, quae, aliquae. Less than definite are pronouns that do not so define a person that they do not need a pointer, as when we say, Ego; for Tu itself is not fully definite unless you point your finger at the person. So then these are to be called less than definite.

For they have a certain designation of incomplete signification, like "I": for suppose there is a crowd, yet "you" is not signified in the crowd in the same way as when one person from the crowd says "I"; but so that we may signify the one among many whom we seek, we either add a name or point with a finger, so that it may appear more clearly whom we are calling. Therefore "you," "that one," and "this one," and other words of this kind which can define a person in some respect, are to be called less than definite.

CHAPTER X. — On the declension of pronouns of the first, second, and third person.

The first person is called "ego": both in the singular number and in the plural when we say "nos," it does not have the vocative case, because no one calls himself, "o ego," "o nos." Therefore it is declined in the singular number thus: nominative ego, genitive mei, dative mihi, accusative me, ablative a me; and in the plural, nominative nos, genitive nostrum, dative nobis, accusative nos, ablative a nobis. For it does not have the vocative, as I said, either in the singular or in the plural. Nominative tu, genitive tui, dative tibi, accusative te, vocative o tu, ablative a te; and in the plural, nominative vos, genitive vestrum, dative vobis, accusative vos, vocative o vos, ablative a vobis. Indeed the first person and the second, that is "ego" and "tu," are of every gender: for both a man says "ego," and a woman says "ego," and a slave says "ego." So too "tu": we say "tu" to a man, and to a woman, and to a slave; so in the plural it is of every gender, as "nos," "vos." From the third person this is the declension in the masculine gender, in the singular number: nominative ille, genitive illius, dative illi, accusative illum, vocative o ille, ablative ab illo; and in the plural, nominative illi, genitive illorum, dative illis, accusative

those, or o illi, by illis. In the feminine gender, N. illa, G. illius, D. illi, A. illam, V. o illa, Ab. ab illa: and in the plural, N. illae, G. illarum, D. illis, A. illas, V. o illae, Ab. ab illis. In the neuter gender, in the singular number, N. illud, G. illius, D. illi, A. illud, V. o illud, Ab. ab illo: and in the plural, N. illa, G. illorum, D. illis, A. illa, V. o illa, Ab. ab illis. Iste, and likewise ipse, you will decline according to the foregoing pattern, both as to genders and also as to numbers. Indeed, there is a question concerning this pronoun ipse, why, when we say istud and illud in the neuter gender, we say ipsum, as Virgil says, "Atque ipsum corpus amici" (Aeneid, book 1, verse 490): he did not say ipsud. But this question is solved in this way: for the ancients said ipsus rather than ipse in the nominative singular of the masculine gender. Attending to this practice of antiquity, later writers transferred this pronoun to the pattern of a noun: so that just as we say from the noun justus, justa, justum, and perfectus, perfecta, perfectum, so also this pronoun will be pronounced ipsus, ipsa, ipsum: not ipsud, like istud and illud.

CHAPTER XI. — On the declension of indefinites.

In the nominative, quis, G. cujus, D. cui, A. quem, V. o qui, Ab. a quo; and in the plural, N. qui, G. quorum, D. quis or quibus (as Virgil says, "Quis ante ora patrum"), A. quos, V. o qui, Ab. a quibus. In the feminine gender, N. quæ, G. cujus, D. cui, A. quam, V. o quæ, Ab. a qua; and in the plural, N. quæ, G. quarum, D. quis, A. quas, V. o quæ, Ab. a quibus. In the neuter gender, N. quod, G. cujus, D. cui, A. quod, V. o quod, Ab. a quo; and in the plural, N. quæ, G. quorum, D. quis (though now, according to usage, we say quibus), A. quæ, V. o quæ, Ab. a quibus. The ancients used quis in the common gender, N. hic et hæc quis, G. hujus quis, D. huic qui, A. hunc et hanc quem, V. o quis, Ab. ab hoc et ab hac qui. Hence comes the ablative ending in bus. But the plural ablative of quis comes from the ablative which ends in o, just as, by rule, when the ablative has ended in o, it sends forth the plural dative in is, as from justo justis, from docto doctis, from perfecto perfectis, from fortunato fortunatis. Therefore, as I said above, the ancients said hic et hæc quis, and just as in nouns we have hic et hæc similis, hic et hæc agilis, hic et hæc facilis, so in pronouns, hic et hæc quis, ab hoc ut ab hac qui. Hence Virgil, when speaking of the companion of Camilla, says: "Quicum partiri cura," that is, cum qua partiri curas. Likewise there are other indefinites which are interrogatives, and they are declined: in the nominative, uter, G. utrius, D.

utri, A. utrum, V. o uter, Ab. ab utro; and in the plural, N. utri, G. utrorum, D. utris, A. utros, V. o utri, Ab. ab utris. Then, with the syllable -que added in composition, it makes uterque, and it signifies both: and yet it is of singular sound, but of dual signification. For when Virgil said, "Constitit in digitos extemplo arrectus uterque" (Id. lib. 5, v. 426), two are signified when he said uterque; but when he said arrectus, he did not wish plurality to be expected, though it might be utrique in the plural. But this is the difference, that although uterque signifies two, yet only two: but utrique signifies two, but in such a way that there are many in each: if you say utrique exercitus, I signify two, but I wish a crowd to be understood in each. These indeed are distinguished, but they are likewise confounded by authority. For when Virgil says, "Super utraque quassat tempora" (Ibid., v. 855), he confounded them: for he ought to have said, super utrumque tempus: for he was speaking of two temples only, for which the accusative utrumque tempus was sufficient; that he might say, utrumque quassat tempus. Therefore, as we have declined the masculine pronoun, so we shall decline the feminine: utra mulier, G. utrius mulieris, D. utri mulieri, A. utram mulierem, V. o utra mulier, Ab. ab hac utra muliere; and in the plural, N. utræ mulieres, G. utrarum mulierum, D. utris mulieribus, A. utras mulieres, V. o utræ mulieres, Ab. ab his utris mulieribus. Thus in the neuter.

utrum mancipium or utrius mancipii, utri mancipio, utrum mancipium, o utrum mancipium, ab hoc utro mancipio; and in the plural, N. utra mancipia, utrorum mancipiorum, utris mancipiis, utra mancipia, o utra mancipia, ab his utris mancipiis. Thus we will decline its contrary, which is neuter. In the masculine, neuter; in the feminine, neutra; in the neuter gender, hoc neutrum mancipium. Hence usage has already seized upon saying generis neutri, when we ought to say neutrius, just as utrius. With the syllable -que added in composition, this pronoun itself is declined according to the rule stated above. In the masculine, uterque; in the feminine, utraque; in the neuter, utrumque. Thus in the plural: in the masculine, utrique; in the feminine, utracque; in the neuter, utraque mancipia. There is also another pronoun, ullus, ullius, ulli, ullum, o ullus, ab ullo; in the plural, ulli, ullorum, ullis, ullos, o ulli, ab ullis. The feminine is ulla, ullius, ulli, ullam, o ulla, ab ulla; in the plural, ullae, ullarum, ullis, ullas, o ullae, ab ullis. The neuter is ullum, ullius, ulli, ullum, o ullum, ab ullo; thus in the plural, ulla, ullorum, ullis, ulla, o ulla, ab ullis. According to this pattern you will also decline nullus, nulla, nullum; likewise alius, hujus alius, huic alii; likewise alter, hujus alterius, huic alteri; likewise totus, hujus totius, huic toti; likewise solus, hujus solius, huic soli; likewise unus, hujus unius, huic uni; whence Virgil: Perhaps I could have submitted to this one fault. (Aen. 4.19)

CHAPTER 16. — Pronouns of Quality.

There are also pronouns of quality: hic and haec quafis, huius qualis, common in gender; from the neuter gender, hoc quale, huius qualis; in the plural, haec qualia, horum qualium. There are also pronouns of quantity, such as quantus, tantus; quanti, tanti: they are declined like iustus, iusti. From the feminine, quanta, tanta, are declined like iusta. From the neuter, quantum, tantum, we decline them like iustum. Likewise the pronoun from the masculine, quotus, totus; from the feminine, quota, tota; from the neuter, quotum, totum. In the plural from the masculine, quoti, toti; from the feminine, quotae, totae; from the neuter, quota iugera, quotorum iugerum. There are relatives which refer to the one asking, as, who is it? the answer is, it is he: and they are declined from the masculine, is, eius, ei, eum, o is, ab eo; in the plural, ii, eorum, eis, eos, o ei, ab eis. From the feminine, ea, eius, ei, eam, o ea, ab ea. From the neuter, id, eius, ei, id, o id, ab eo. Therefore when we speak of a journey, we must say per id iter, not per eum iter; because eum, in the accusative case, is of the masculine gender: in the plural, ea itinera, ab eis itineribus. Likewise per id nostrum, per id tectum, per id caput: not per eum, except in the masculine gender only.

CHAPTER 13. — On the Verb.

We understand "verbs" in four ways. In the first way, when we take "words" for deceits, as when we say, "he gave him words," that is, he deceived him; whence Terence said, "To whom it is difficult to give words" (And. act. i, scen. 5, v. 6). In the second way, we call "words" speech, as "Cicero made words in the senate." In the third way, we call "words" common sayings which are called proverbs, as Terence said: "That word is commonly a vulgar one which is wont to be said" (Terent., And. ad. 2, scen. i, l. 15). In the fourth way, we call "verbs" those things which we run through both in tenses and persons, as clamo, clamas, clamat. Here there are also three persons, as clamo ego, clamas tu, clamat ille; and the tense is present. Then in the plural, clamamus nos, clamatis vos, clamant illi. In the past imperfect tense, clamabam ego, clamabas tu, clamabat ille; and in the plural, clamabamus nos, clamabatis vos, clamabant illi. In the past perfect tense, in the singular number, clamavi ego, clamavisti tu, clamavit ille. In the past pluperfect tense, where we signify not only that we have done something, but also that we did it long ago, and we say in the singular number, clamaveram ego, clamaveras tu, clamaverat ille; and in the plural, clamaveramus nos, clamaveratis vos, clamaverant illi. In the future tense, in the singular number, clamabo ego, clamabis tu, clamabit ille; clamabimus nos, clamabitis vos, clamabunt illi. Up to this point, in the indicative mood, all that we have said is the part of one who judges.

Therefore it is called imperative, because it has the sound of commanding. But this mood does not have a first person, because no one commands himself, but it speaks to the second person and the third. In the singular number, to the second person, "cry out" (clama), and to the third, "let him cry out" (clamet); and in the plural, to the second, "cry out" (clamate), to the third, "let them cry out" (clament). In the future tense, to the second, "cry out" (clamato), to the third likewise "cry out" (clamato). But why it does the same in the second and third, there is a reason: but it must now be passed over. And lest we pass on to other things, let us return to the plural matter. To the second person, "cry out" (clamatote), to the third, "cry out" (clamato). Now we call it optative because it speaks in the manner of one wishing: first person in the present tense, "would that I were crying out" (utinam clamarem), to the second, "would that you were crying out" (utinam clamares), to the third, "would that he were crying out" (utinam clamaret); and in the plural, to the first person, "would that we were crying out" (utinam clamaremus), to the second, "would that you were crying out" (utinam clamaretis), to the third, "would that they were crying out" (utinam clamarent). In the past tense, to the first person, "would that I had cried out" (utinam clamassem ego), to the second, "would that you had cried out" (utinam clamasses tu), to the third, "would that he had cried out" (utinam clamasset ille); and in the plural, "would that we had cried out" (utinam clamassemus nos), "would that you had cried out" (utinam clamassetis vos), "would that they had cried out" (utinam clamassent illi). In the future tense, first person, "would that I may cry out" (utinam clamem ego), "would that you may cry out" (utinam clames tu), "would that he may cry out" (utinam clamet ille); and in the plural, "would that we may cry out" (utinam clamemus), "would that you may cry out" (clametis), "would that they may cry out" (clament).

For this reason it is called the subjunctive mood, because it requires something in order to complete its meaning—for example, when I say "cum clamem, clames, clamet" (when I shout, you shout, he shouts). Here the sense hangs suspended and needs something for the sentence to be complete: as if I were to say, "When I am shouting, why do you tell me to be silent?" Therefore the conjunctive mood is so called because something is joined to it, so that the meaning of the utterance may be full. So let us decline this mood as we did the previous ones. It is declined through three persons: the first person of the present tense is "cum clamem," the second person "cum clames," the third "cum clamet"; and in the plural, the first person "cum clamemus," the second "cum clametis," the third "cum clament." In the imperfect past tense, the first person is "cum clamarem," the second "cum clamares," the third "cum clamaret"; and in the plural, the first person "cum clamaremus," the second "cum clamaretis," the third "cum clamarent." In the perfect past tense, the first person is "cum clamaverim," "cum clamaveris," "cum clamaverit"; and in the plural, the first person "cum clamaverimus," "cum clamaveritis," "cum clamaverint." In the pluperfect tense, the first person is "cum clamavissem," "cum clamavisses," "cum clamavisset"; and in the plural, the first person "cum clamavissemus," "cum clamavissetis," "cum clamavissent." In the future tense, the first person is "cum clamavero," "cum clamaveris," "cum clamaverit"; and in the plural, the first person "cum clamaverimus," "cum clamaveritis," "cum clamaverint.

This mood is called the infinitive because the previous moods define persons—first, second, and third—whereas this mood is without persons and has only a fixed time: present, past, and future. For example, clamare is present, clamasses is past, clamatum ire is future. Here you see that it designates times only, not persons. For in clamare and clamasse and clamatum ire, the person is unknown unless you choose to join and say, "ille clamare debet" (he ought to shout); then it becomes, as it were, finite. But if you do not add ille or ipse or iste, it becomes what is called the infinitive mood; for it is infinite in both singular and plural number. For when I say clamare or clamasse, it is not defined whether I speak of one person or of two. These, then, are the moods through which all verbs are run.

CHAPTER XIV. — On the first conjugation.

Now let us run through the remaining verbs according to the pattern of the one verb currimus: likewise clamo, clamas, clamat; amo, amas, amat; canto, cantas, cantat; pulso, pulsas, pulsat; freno, frenas, frenat; armo, armas, armat; impugno, impugnas, impugnat; capto, captas, captat; paro, paras, parat; separo, separas, separat; accuso, accusas, accusat; mando, mandas, mandat; gravo, gravas, gravat; lavo, lavas, lavat; genero, generas, generat; creo, creas, creat; ligo, ligas, ligat; alligo, alligas, alligat; sanctifico, sanctificas, sanctificat; cito, citas, citat; vulnero, vulneras, vulnerat; macero, maceras, macerat; lacero, laceras, lacerat; aro, aras, arat; calco, calcas, calcat; lanio, lanias, laniat; memoro, memoras, memorat; calceo, calceas, calceat; investigo, investigas, investigat; vallo, vallas, vallat; domo, domas, domat; circumvallo, circumvallas, circumvallat; curvo, curvas, curvat; medico, medicas, medicat; consulto, consultas, consultat; intimo, intimas, intimat; insinuo, insinuas, insinuat; frequento, frequentas, frequentat; celebro, celebras, celebrat; ministro, ministras, ministrat; palpo, palpas, palpat; sono, sonas, sonat; socio, socias, sociat; muto, mutas, mutat.

postulo postulas postulat, quasso quassas quassat, eviscero evisceras eviscerat, denso densas densat, enervo enervas enervat, verbero verberas verberat, macto mactas mactat, fugo fugas fugat, elimino eliminas eliminat, caelo caelas caelat, signo signas signat, ventilo ventilas ventilat, contristo contristas contristat, sereno serenas serenat, and the like. To all these a letter is added, and they become passive, as clamor clamaris clamatur, amor amaris amatur, pulsor pulsaris pulsatur, secor secaris secatur, curor curaris curatur. Thus you will run through all of them according to those moods which we mentioned above: indicative, imperative, optative, conjunctive, infinitive. Of course, from the same sound by which we arranged the active verbs, that is, by which we signified that we do something, there are similar sounds, but they belong to neuter verbs. But lest it disturb you why they are called neuter, this is the reason: because they neither do anything nor suffer anything, as est sto, iaceo, cubo, sedeo. These are in no action, in no passion. Other neuters are so called by abuse, which have action but no passion: as certo has action, but we do not say certor, as curro.

From this sound there are many words which, when they end in o, do not admit or, such as these verbs: pugno pugnas pugnat, bello bellas bellat, cceno coenas coenat, nato natas natat, ambulo ambulas ambulat, navigo navigas navigat, commeo commeas commeat, aestuo aestuas aestuat, regno regnas regnat, gelo gelas gelat, dico dicas dicat, exsulo exsulas exsulat, sacrifico sacrificas sacrificat, cachinno cachinnas cachinnat. All these are of the first conjugation, which sends the second person of all these verbs into the syllable as, as amo amas, canto cantas, pulso pulsas, freno frenas, armo armas, impugno impugnas, salto saltas, curvo curvas, pugno pugnas. Therefore you have heard the first conjugation; you ought to know that the second person of the verb ends in the syllable as. For it is called a conjugation because it joins many things to one sound. The Greeks call these conjugations. Thus you run through all similar things by this method.

CHAPTER XV. — On the Second Conjugation.

The second conjugation, however, is the one that is likewise sought in the second person, and ends in es, as teneo tenes, praebeo praebes, moneo mones, doleo doles, tergeo terges, arceo arces, egeo eges, terreo terres, mulceo mulces, impleo imples, compleo comples, repleo reples, suppleo supples, mordeo mordes, spondeo spondes, and the like. And to these a letter is added, and they become passive: teneor teneris, mordeor morderis, arceor arceris, mulceor mulceris, impleor impleris. You will decline these passives through the moods and tenses and persons. Through the moods, as I said: indicative, imperative, optative, conjunctive, infinitive — that is what I meant by "through the moods." Through the tenses, however, that is, past, present, or future. Persons, moreover, he called first, second, and third, as teneor teneris tenetur; and in the plural tenemur tenemini tenentur. These things, as I said, you will observe. But just as I said above that the first conjugation, which ends in as, as amo amas, also admits neuter verbs, as certo certas, nato natas, in which the letter is not admitted — for we do not say certor, nator — so in this second conjugation, which ends in eo, es, as moneo mones, doceo doces, there are many that do not admit the letter in the first person, as algeo alges, scateo scates: for algeor is not Latin; likewise ferveo ferves, torpeo torpes, pendeo pendes, invideo invides: although the poet Horatius said invideor (In the Art of Poetry, v.

56), but by a new usage: thus eminco emines, and we do not say emineor. These two conjugations, the first and the second, which we have said end in as and in es, as amo amas, moneo mones, always put the future tense in the syllable bo, as amabo, monebo.

CHAPTER XVI. — On the third and fourth conjugation.

Thus you will observe everywhere that the future tense puts the syllable bo, because there are two other conjugations which put the future tense in the syllable am, not in bo, and these conjugations are called the third short and the third long. The third short is the one which puts the imperative mood in a short e, as scribe, tolle, carpe, occide, sere, lege. You have therefore seen the imperative end thus. So the third conjugation is the short one, which always puts the future tense in am, never in bo, as scribam, legam, tollam, carpam: because it is not Latin if someone says scribebo, legebo, tollebo, carpebo. The third conjugation, likewise the long one, is gathered from the same imperative mood. For when the imperative mood ends in the letter i, it is the third long conjugation, as audi, nutri, senti, muni, sarci, leni, and similar words. Likewise these also put the future tense in am, as muniam, leniam, nutriam, audiam.

But the third conjugation, with a short vowel, has a short e before the last syllable in the infinitive, as scribere, legere, tollere, and the like; whereas the third conjugation with a long vowel has in the infinitive a long i in the syllable before the last, as munire, lenire, audire, sarcire, sentire, venire. Hence in all verbs these conjugations are observed: those which end in as and in es form the future tense in bo, as I have said rather often. But those which end in is form the future tense in am, never in bo, unless by assumed authority; for the art forbids this. But let us set down some verbs of the third, short conjugation, from which you may infer others as well. They are these: lego, tollo, erigo, carpo, cognosco, capio, fugio, mergo, sero, arguo, accipio, pono, sumo, accendo, expono, incipio. These take a letter and form passive verbs: leger, carpor, capior, etc. Under this form are neuter verbs, which do not take the letter, as cado; for we do not say cador. Likewise ruo, for we do not say ruor; facio, for we do not say facior. Likewise fulgesco, nitesco, fervesco, algesco, torpesco, compesco, nigresco. All these do not have the letter, and verbs which end in sco are called neuter. Therefore remember that neuter verbs never admit the letter.

CHAPTER XL. — On the common verb, whence it is so called, and on its conjugation.

There remain two other kinds of verbs, which are called common and deponent. But they are called common because they hold both active and passive together under one sound. Just as among nouns a common gender is said to be that which holds both masculine and feminine under one sound, as sacerdos, homo — it makes hic et haec sacerdos, hic et haec homo — so also verbs are called common: and they never lay aside a letter, lest they not be Latin. As osculor, if you take away a letter and say osculo, it is not Latin. And we say, when we act, osculor te; but when we suffer and are affected by another, we say osculor a te. So criminor te, not crimino, when we signify an action, that is, when we cast a charge against someone, we say criminor te; but when a charge is cast against us, we say criminor te, that is, I hear a charge from you, and it is a passive signification. But these verbs are declined like the former ones through moods, tenses, and persons. In the present tense, singularly, criminor, criminaris, criminatur, and plurally criminamur, criminamini, criminantur. In the imperfect preterite, singularly criminabar, criminabaris, criminabatur, and plurally criminabamur, criminabamini, criminabantur. In the perfect preterite, singularly criminatus sum, criminatus es, criminatus est; and plurally criminati sumus, criminati estis, criminati sunt. In the pluperfect preterite, singularly criminatus eram, eras.

it was: and in the plural, we had accused, you had accused, they had accused. In the future, in the singular, I will accuse, you will accuse, he will accuse: and in the plural, we will accuse, you will accuse, they will accuse. But the imperative mood in verbs always ends in re, as when you say accuse him, that is, bring a charge against him. In the optative mood thus: would that I might accuse, would that you might accuse, would that he might accuse: and in the plural, would that we might accuse, would that you might accuse, would that they might accuse. In the past perfect, in the singular: would that I had accused, would that you had accused, would that he had accused: and in the plural, would that we had accused, would that you had accused, would that they had accused. In the future, in the singular: would that I may accuse, would that you may accuse, would that he may accuse: and in the plural, would that we may accuse, would that you may accuse, would that they may accuse. In the conjunctive mood, in the singular: when I may accuse, when you may accuse, when he may accuse. In the past imperfect, in the singular: when I might accuse, when you might accuse, when he might accuse. In the past perfect, in the singular: when I may have accused, when you may have accused, when he may have accused: and in the plural, when we may have accused, when you may have accused, when they may have accused. In the past pluperfect, in the singular: when I might have accused, when you might have accused, when he might have accused: and in the plural, when we might have accused, when you might have accused, when they might have accused. In the future tense, in the singular: when I will have accused, you will have accused, he will have accused: and in the plural, when we will have accused, you will have accused, they will have accused. In the infinitive mood, which we said signifies no persons, it makes in the present, to accuse; in the past, to have accused; in the future, to be about to accuse.

For this pattern you will decline common verbs as follows: hortor, jaculer. osculor, nidificor, tutor, consolor, scrutor, moror, feneror, amplector, and furor, whence comes furor, furaris, furatur, comitor, recordor, reminiscor, percunctor, minor, gestor, piscor, odoror, aucupor, venor, contemplor, speculor, sector, veneror, dignor, precor, miseror, vador, that is, I give my pledge, calumnior, and others of this kind which never lay aside their letter: for if they lay it aside, they are not Latin. For who would say reminisco, or recordo, or digno, or secio? Therefore you must always pronounce these with the letter.

CHAPTER XVIII. — On the deponent verb.

There remains the deponent verb, which is so called because it lays aside something of the quantity of the common verb. For whereas the common verb has four participles: the present, as criminans; the future, criminaturus; the past, criminatus; the future, criminandus: from the passive signification, criminandus, the deponent verb does not have this. And therefore it is called deponent, because it lays aside one participle of the future tense from the passive verb, which ends in the syllable dus, for example opinor or minor are deponent verbs. It comes from the participle of the present tense: it makes minans, in the future tense it makes minaturus, in the past it makes minatus. In the future, from the signification of the passive it does not make minandus: thus opinans, opinaturus, opinatus, it does not make opinandus: or if you say moriens, moriturus, mortuus, it does not make moriendus, because it is not Latin.

Therefore this deponent verb as well runs through the moods, tenses, and persons in this way. As was said above, a common verb with the letter removed is Latin, but with the letter removed it is not Latin; so too deponent verbs, when they have lost the letter, are not Latin. I therefore now add a few deponent verbs; Latin usage will teach the rest. They are: opinor, minor, grator, gratulor, arbitror, gratificor, auspicor, misereor, leduernor, meditor, luctor, conor, suffragor, vescor, lætor, morior, Stomachor, hariolor, lezor, that is I color paint, argulor, paciscor, complector, adversor, angor, queror, from the meaning of querela, macior, ratiocinor, argumentor, blandior, fabulor, nitor, labor from the meaning of lapsus, vagor, rusticor, concionor, that is I speak to the people, mercor, vociferor, nanciscor, which is I find, suspicor, and others. Remember, as I have already said, to pronounce the letter: for no one says blando, or pacisco. Thus all these are declined according to the form of the declension of the common verb, which I said is criminor.

CHAPTER XIX. — On neutro-passives and impersonals.

We have therefore treated active verbs, which are so called from acting; we have treated neuter verbs, which receive this name because they neither act nor are acted upon, as we said: sto, jaceo, sedeo, cubo, and others. We have also treated other neuter verbs which act but are not acted upon, and are called quasi-semi-neuter: such as nato, curro. Others which are acted upon but do not act: such as vapulo, pendeo, sudo, algeo, aestuo, ferveo, febrio, somnio, meridio, rigeo, frigeo, tumeo, langueo, oleo, rubeo, fulgeo, stupeo, and others. In all these — both in those which in no way act nor are acted upon, and also in those which act but are not acted upon, and likewise in those which are acted upon but do not act — the letter r is never added, for then they begin not to be Latin. We have likewise treated common verbs, and explained why they are called common, because they contain within themselves both action and passion. We have treated deponent verbs, and explained why they are called deponent, because they lay down the participle of the future tense in a passive sense, which ends in dus, since we do not say moriendus, gloriandus, blandiendus, and others which come from deponent verbs. Indeed the writers of arts have added another kind of verb, which they have called neutro-passive, but this new kind of verb has been invented by euphony, and it is found in few verbs, such as gaudeo.

Since it was harsh to say gavisi in the past tense, they changed the sound from the past tense of the passive verb gaudeo, gavisus sum, just as audeo, ausus sum, and soleo, solitus sum, and likewise fido, fisus sum. But of this new kind there are very few. There are also certain other few verbs which are called impersonals, and they end in the syllables et and tur: pudet, taedet, decet, libet, paenitet, patet, piget, miseret, liquet; and they are called impersonals for this reason, that they lack two persons, the first and the second, and have only the third person. For we do not say pudeo, pudes, nor deceo, deces, nor libeo, libes, nor pigeo, piges, nor misereo, miseres, nor paeniteo, paenites, nor pateo, pates, nor liqueo, liques. But you should know that patet and liquet signify what we call manifestum est. So if you say, "And if it is clear that you did this, you have done a wrong," this is what liquet also signifies, that is, it is manifest. But taedet signifies that there is taedium, just as piget, as it were, signifies pigritia. For when we say, "It irks me to have done it," this is to say, "My mind does not rise up to approve what I have done." But all these verbs are declined thus: pudet me, piget me, miseret me, paenitet me. Besides these, libet and licet, patet and liquet. For to these we join the dative case, as libet mihi, licet mihi, patet mihi, liquet mihi.

But the second kind, which ends in -tur, is itself also of impersonal verbs, as itur, curritur, certatur, pugnatur; they do not have the first and second person, for neither is it said "I am gone" nor "I am run" nor "I am fought" nor "I am contended." And these verbs are declined: itur by me, by you, by him; pugnatur by me, by you, by him. Thus in the imperfect past: ibatur by me, by you, by him; pugnabatur by me, by you, by him; certabatur by me, by you, by him. Thus in the perfect past: itum est by me, by you, by him; cursum est by me, by you, by him; pugnatum est by me, by you, by him; certatum est by me, by you, by him. Thus in the pluperfect past: itum erat by me, by you, by him; cursum erat by me, by you, by him; pugnatum erat by me, by you, by him; certatum erat by me, by you, by him. Thus in the future tense: ibitur by me, by you, by him; curretur by me, by you, by him; pugnabitur by me, by you, by him; certabitur by me, by you, by him; and in the plural by us, by you, by them. In the imperative mood: eatur by me, by you, by him; by us, by you, by them. In the optative mood: would that it were gone by me, by you, by him; by us, by you, by them. In the perfect and pluperfect past: would that it had been gone by me, by you, by him; and in the plural by us, by you, by them. In the future tense: would that it be gone by me, by you, by him; in the plural by us, by you, by them.

In the subjunctive mood, present tense: cum curratur a me, a te, ab illo; and in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the imperfect past: cum curreretur a me, a te, ab illo; in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the perfect past: cum cursum sit a me, a te, ab illo; in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the pluperfect past: cum cursum esset a me, a te, ab illo; in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the future: cum cursum erit a me, a te, ab illo; in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the infinitive mood: curri debet a me, a te, ab illo; and in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the past tense: cursum esse debuit a me, a te, ab illo; and in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis. In the future tense: cursum iri debet a me, a te, ab illo; and in the plural a nobis, a vobis, ab illis.

CHAPTER XX. — On inchoative, frequentative, and desiderative verbs.

There are other verbs which are called inchoative, and they arise from a sudden affection, and they end in the syllable -sco, as ardeo ardesco, caleo calesco, candeo candesco, tabo labasco, tepeo tepesco, ferveo fervesco, vireo viresco, algeo algesco, dormio dormisco, and others. All these do not have a past tense; for one can say calui and fervi, and not calesco or fervesco caluifecit or fervifecit; but from ferveo comes fervi, from caleo comes calui, for calescui, fervescui, and virescui are not Latin. And therefore they are said to be inchoative and not to have a past tense: because the things we begin are not yet perfected. And all these which I said end in -sco are always neuter, nor do they take a letter, and therefore I warned that they are neuter. Nor let certain verbs ending in -scor disturb you, which nevertheless admit a past tense, as obliviscor oblitus sum, paciscor pactus sum, adipiscor adeptus sum: even these, while they are neuter, in which we said past tenses cease. Moreover, other verbs are called frequentative, by which something done more frequently is signified, as from dicto comes dictito, from lego lectito, from scribo scriptito, from clamo clamito, from cio cito, which signifies I call frequently, whence we now say that some are cited by the voice of a herald, that is, frequently called, and others.

There are also a very few other verbs which are called desiderative, as esurio, that is, I desire to eat; parturio, I desire to give birth; and, as Cicero says of the philosophers, morituriunt, they desire to die. But these, as I said, are few, and they have been introduced into the sound of Latinity.

CHAPTER XXI. — On the adverb.

The adverb is so called because it adheres to the verb: nor can the force of the verb sound more significantly unless an adverb is joined to it: for example, the verb is dico, navigo, valeo, curro, and others: these are not of full signification unless adverbs are added, as bene, male, docte, feliciter: as bene dicit, imperite dicit, prospere navigat, infeliciter navigat, integre valet, debiliter valet, agiliter currit, tardius currit. You see that the full signification of verbs cannot exist unless adverbs have been joined. Thus other adverbs are joined to complete the signification of the verb, as are the adverbs of places, adverbs of times: as hic dico, hic habito, intro eo, intus sum, foras eo, foris sum, hinc navigo. So too concerning time: cras navigo, hodie navigo: and the others which have been spoken of in other arts and are plain to the understanding I have been unwilling to set down here, because for avoiding the fastidiousness of speaking, brevity is opportune. Certainly in adverbs we ought to observe these things, when they end in e, when in the syllable -ter, the ablative case teaches this. For when the ablative ends in o, it sends forth the adverb in e, as from docto docte, from justo juste, from perfecto perfecte, from pio pie, from valido valide.

From fortunatus, fortunate; from magnus, magne; from amplus, ample; from minimus, minime; and others. But when an adverb ends in the syllable -ter, the ablative teaches it, as I said: from agilis, agiliter; from humilis, humiliter; from acer, acriter; from fortis, fortiter; from levis, leviter; from gravis, graviter; from jugis, jugiter. But there are certain forms which, since they sounded harsh, have been dropped, and are not to be treated according to this rule, as we do not say militer from mitis, nor tristiter from tristis. To avoid such harshness of sound, they have lost their final syllable, as from sapiens, sapienter, not sapientiter; from prudens, prudenter, not prudentiter; from praestans, praestanter, not praestantiter. We should therefore take care neither to apply euphony to the rule nor to reject euphony. For euphony, that is, the pleasantness of sounding well, has been admitted into the Latin language so as to temper what is harsh; and where harshness offended the ear, a departure was made from art according to reason. Thus Cicero says: It was obtained from reason that one might err for the sake of pleasantness. But nevertheless euphony has been admitted in only a few cases. For reason is rich, and so are the most Latin of men. Indeed, in regard to these rules, authority has dared, and in a few cases presumed, as when Cicero said humaniter, though he ought to have said humane; and Terence, Vitam parce ac duriter agebat, for produre. But even these authors themselves presumed a few things against the rule rather modestly and with a certain shame.

For they also said I'also for false, and necessario for necessarie, and sedulo for sedule, and raro for rare, and crebro for crebre, and tuto for tute; thus also other words, though few, have been used not presumptuously but with restraint. Indeed there are adverbs ending in other syllables as well, as from fundus, funditus; from caelum, caelitus; from radix, radicitus; from penetralia loca, penitus; from stirps, stirpitus. Likewise those in -im, as from vicus, vicatim; from ostium, ostiatim; from viri, viritim. Likewise from nimius, nimis; as, Ne quid nimis. They end in -ens, as recens, that is, in recent time. Virgil: Sole recens orto (Georgics 3.156): that is, in recent time. Therefore all these are adverbs without distinction. Likewise between intro and intus there is this difference: intro involves motion, intus involves position: as, intro eo, intus sum. For eo is motion; sum is position. There is also a certain obscurity in the adverbs de secundo, tertio, quarto, quinto, sexto, and secundum, tertium, quartum, quintum, sextum: for example, secundo factus est consul, and secundum factus fuit consul. But secundo belongs to order, secundum to offices: for example, when I say, Secundo factus est consul, it belongs, as I said, to order, because one man was made consul first, and thus another second. But when we say secundum consulem, or tertium, or quartum, or quintum, or sextum, it belongs to number, because he was consul six times.

Hence Cicero says of Marius: "Sextum consul," that is, he who earned six consulships, and "septimum consul," that is, he earned a seventh consulship. Varro distinguished this in his books On Numbers. And the rest are now plain in adverbs, and easy to understand from any of the arts.

CHAPTER XXII. — Likewise concerning the adverb.

An adverb is a part of speech which, added to a verb, explains and completes its meaning: as "I write well," "I read best." To an adverb belong signification, figure, and degree. Adverbs are either born from themselves, as "yesterday," "recently"; or they pass over from other words, as "learnedly," "wisely," from that which is "learned" and "wise." The significations of adverbs are many. For they are either of time, as "yesterday," "recently"; or of person, as "with me," "with you"; or of place, as "here," "there." And there are local adverbs interrogative, as "whence," "where," "by which way." Responsive, "from there," "from here," "to there." They are of double form, as "within," "into"; "outside," "out to." Their observance is such: "outside" and "within" in a place, as "he is within," "he was within," "he will be within"; "he was within," "he had been within"; "he was outside," "he had been outside," "he was going to be outside." Concerning place, "I come from within," "I come from outside." But "out to" and "into" signify to a place, as "I go out," "I come out"; "I go in," "I come in"; "I had gone out," "I had gone in." These four are figured in four ways: through a place, to a place, in a place, from a place. Through a place, as "This is our way to Elysium." To a place, as "Come hither, O Galatea." In a place, as "Here also the Narycian Locrians placed their walls.

From the place, as: "Hinc digressum vestris deus appulit oris" — that is, "from here the god brought him, having set out, to your shores." (Ibid. v. 715.) There are adverbs that signify both in a place and from a place, as "intus sum," I am inside, and "intus venio," I come from inside. There are those that signify both in a grove and into a grove and from a grove, as "penitus sum," I am deep within, "eo," I go, and "venio," I come. There are adverbs having the meaning of number, as "semel," once, "bis," twice, "ter," thrice. Of demonstration, as "en," behold, "ecce," look. Of affirmation, as "quidem," indeed, "quippe," certainly. Of exhortation, as "eia," come now. Of interrogation, as "cur," why, "quare," wherefore. Of similarity, as "sic," thus, "quasi," as if. Of comparison or preference, as "magis," more, "potius," rather. Of doubting, as "fortasse," perhaps. Of assenting, as "plane," plainly, "sane," surely. Of separation, as "seorsum," apart, "segregatim," separately. Of wishing, as "utinam," would that. Of calling, as "heus," hey. Of responding, as "he," yes. Of disparaging, as "nequaquam," by no means, "frustra," in vain. Of swearing, as "aedepol," by Pollux, "aecastor," by Castor. Of prohibiting, as "ne," do not. Of denying, as "non," not, "haud," by no means, "minime," least of all. Of gathering together, as "una," together, "simul," at the same time. Of ordering, as "deinde," then, "denique," finally. Of wondering, as "papae," wow. Of praising, as "euge," well done. Of exclaiming, as "proh," oh. Of grieving, as "heu," alas. Of choosing, as "vah," ah. Of groaning, as "hei," woe. But because these signify an affection of the mind, they are called interjections by many, who for that reason wish the interjection to be separate from the adverb and to be some part of speech, because it is proper to the adverb that it can be joined to a verb. The Greeks, however, do not separate the interjection from the adverb, because they assign the motions of the mind to the category of quality, and they think all these adverbs fall under the genus of quality. There are adverbs of quantity, as "longe," far, "late," widely. Of quality, as "bene," well, "male," badly.

Adverbs are derived not only from appellations, that is, from appellative nouns, as from pulcher, "beautiful," comes pulchre, "beautifully"; but also from proper names, as from Tullius comes Tulliane. From pronouns also, as from meo and tuo come meatim and tuatim; from verbs too, as from curro comes cursim. Some are found to come from both, as pedetentim from pede and tento, that is, from a noun and a verb at once. There are also adverbs of which it is uncertain whether they derive from a noun or from a verb, as furtim. For it is uncertain whether it derives from fur, which is a noun, or from the verb furor, furaris. Some deny that adverbs come from participles; but they are found, as from decens comes decenter.

CHAPTER XXIII. — Adverbs derived from nouns have six endings. A general rule.

Adverbs derived from nouns end in six ways: either in e, as docte, pulchre, honeste; or in r, as velociter; or in im, as ubertim, singillatim; or in us, as radicitus, mordicus; or in u, as noctu, diu; or in i, as domi, humi, vesperi. Adverbs of quality ending in the letter e ought to be long. But those are exceptions which waver either in the comparative or in the superlative degree, as bene, male; or which do not derive from an appellation, as impune, saepe. Otherwise facul die and difficile, which are used as adverbs, are nouns, from which these adverbs are born, faciliter, difficiliter; but usage has claimed them as it were adverbs.

Whatever nouns of quality or quantity end in the dative singular with the letter o, these produce adverbs ending in e, as from justo comes juste. But the ancients used these indifferently, as humaniter, duriter. Those, however, that end in the letter i produce adverbs ending in the syllable ter, as from agili, nobili, audaci, difficili come agiliter, nobiliter, audaciter, difficiliter. But some of these we say by syncope for the sake of euphony, as audacter, difficulter, sapienter, and constanter. There are adverbs common with other parts of speech. They are common with nouns, as Sallust says: Falso queritur de natura sua genus humanum, in place of false. Virgil: Et pede terram crebro ferit, and Multa Jovem manibus supplex orasse supinis. With the conjunction ut, when it is an adverb, it signifies several things. Likeness thus: Ut quondam Creta fertur Labyrinthus in alta. Time thus: Ut regem aequaevum, etc.; ut vidi, ut perii; ut me malus abstulit error. Quality: ut, Trojanas ut opes et lamentabile regnum. Quantity: ut, Quibus Hector ab oris exspectate venis? ut te post multa tuorum funera. But it signifies the conjunction thus: Ut faciem mutatus et ora Cupido, pro dulci Ascanio. It is [common] with a preposition, as pro.

But the figure in adverbs is either simple, as docte, prudenter; or compound, as indocte, imprudenter. Degrees befall adverbs as often as the appellations from which they come are compared, as docte, doctius, doctissime. They also receive diminution, as meliuscule. Although they receive comparison and diminution, even those which are born from themselves, as naper, nuperrime. A preposition ought not to be added separately to all adverbs, although it has been read, ab hinc, in Terence, Interea mulier quaedam ab hinc triennium (in Andria, act 1, scene 1, v. 40). And in Virgil, Exinde per altum mittimur Elysium (Aeneid book 6, vv. 743, 744). And dehinc: as, Dehinc talia fatur (Id. book 1, v. 256): and, Deinde feraces plantae immittuntur (Georgics book 2, vv. 79, 80): all of which, and whatever other similar expressions there are, as proinde, it has pleased that the accent be brought forward contrary to the rule, lest the prepositions added separately seem to belong to the adverbs.

CHAPTER XXIV. On participles. General rule.

This part of speech takes a part both from the verb and from the noun; for from this it is called a participle. Now this part of speech ends in the present tense in the syllables ens and ans, as legens and amans. In the future tense in rus, as legens lecturus, amans amaturus. In the past, lectus, amatus. In the future, legendus, amandus. You see that this part of speech runs through the tenses: all these things it borrows from the verb. For tenses belong to the verb. But that it is declined through cases, this it borrows from the noun. For case declension belongs to the noun, as hic legens, huius legentis, huic legenti, hunc legentem, legens, ab hoc legente. Therefore, because this part of speech runs either through tenses or through cases, it is called a participle, because it takes a part of the noun and a part of the verb. It is not a laborious part of speech, but easy to understand. For it ends in the present tense in ans and in ens, as amans, legens. In the future with active meaning in rus, as amaturus, lecturus. With passive meaning in tus and in dus, as amatus, legendus. Indeed the past tense itself is terminated by three syllables: in tus, as lectus, scriptus; in sus, as occisus, visus; in xus, as fixus; you will find no more. Therefore, as we said, the present in ens and in ans, the future in rus, the past in tus, the future always in dus. There are indeed nouns which by their sound are thought to be participles, but they are nouns.

For those are participles which come from verbs, as from lego, legens, lecturus, lectus, legendus. Tunicatus and galeatus and clipeatus and tropaeatus are nouns, not participles, because they do not come from a verb. There is one participle of the past tense in -uus, which ought to end in one u, not in two. For where the nominative is formed with the letter u doubled, it is a noun, not a participle, as fatuus, ingenuus, arduus, carduus, exiguus, belluus, as Cicero said. In these, contrary to the rule of participles, mortuus is thought to be a participle, but it has been turned to the force and rule of a noun.

CHAPTER XXV. On the conjunction.

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects and orders a sentence. Accidents of the conjunction are figure, order, and force. Figure is what appears as simple figure. But indeed order also appears: those which can only be placed before, as nam; those which are subjoined, as que; those which are both placed before and subjoined, as igitur. The force of conjunctions is divided into five species. For they are copulative: et, quae, ast, at, atque. Disjunctive: aut, vel, ve, nec, neque, neve, an, utrum. Expletive: quidem, equidem, autem, tamen, porro, videlicet, proinde, denique, utique. Causal: si, etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, siquidem, quando, equidem, quin, quinetiam, sin, sinetiam, quanquam, quamvis, sin autem, seu, sive, namque, nisi, nisi si, enim, etenim, sed, ut, praeterea, interea, quamobrem, quare, praesertim, item, itemque, ceterum, alioquin.

Rationale, ita, itaque, enim, enimvero, quapropter, quippe, quoniam, quoniamquidem, ergo, igitur, ideo, idcirco, scilicet, praeterea. Of these, et, a copulative conjunction, signifies many things. But it often passes over into the species of another function. Sometimes into an expletive, as, "And what so great a cause of seeing was there for you?" (Eclogues I, v. 27.) For quality and quantity, as, "I fear the Danaans even when bearing gifts" (Aeneid, book 1, v. 49). And sometimes it is put for a disjunctive, as, "And would anyone adore the divinity of Juno besides, or as a suppliant lay honor upon the altars?" (id. book 1, vv. 52, 53.) Sometimes it is placed for a causal, as, "Of whom Iphytus, now heavier with age, and slow with the net and wound, I ordered;" (id. book 2, vv. 435, 436.) for "even with the wound slow." Sometimes it is taken for an adverb of ordering, as, "And they wash the body and anoint it while it is cold" (id. book 6, v. 219): for "then they anoint." Likewise, aut, a conjunction, signifies many things. For sometimes it is taken for an adverb of distinction, as, "Before the city boys and youth in their first flower are exercised on horses, and tame chariots in the dust, or stretch taut the keen bows, or hurl the shafts bound with thongs." (id. book 7, vv. 163-163.) Sometimes it signifies for time, as, "Or before the faces of the gods he paces at the fat altars, and renews the feast with gifts:" (id. book 4, vv. 62, 63.) that is, "now before the faces of the gods he paces to the altars." Likewise, "Or he tramples the ranks with his chariot, or hurls seized spears at the fleeing." (id. book 9, vv.

The forms of conjunctions are two: simple, as nam; compound, as namque. The order of conjunctions in this matter is that either they are prepositive conjunctions, as at, ast; or subjunctive, as que; or common, as et, igitur. There are also words which it is uncertain whether we should call prepositions or adverbs, which nevertheless are all easily distinguished. For conjunctions too are found put in place of other conjunctions, with their force changed.

CHAPTER XX, VI. — On the preposition. Prepositions with the accusative, with the ablative, and with both.

All prepositions are spoken of generally. But the species are these: some with the accusative, some with the ablative, others with both. The accusative ones are uttered with the accusative case, as ad, apud, ante, adversus, cis, citra, circum, circa, contra, erga, extra, intra, infra, juxta, ob, pene, per, prope, propter, praeter, post, pone, secundum, supra, trans, ultra. In these prepositions the genders of nouns must be observed, that is, masculine, feminine, neuter, common. The numbers too must be observed, for example with the masculine singular, ad agrum; with the plural, ad agros. With the feminine singular, ad villam, or ad possessionem. With the plural, ad villas, or ad possessiones. So the neuter singular, ad templum, ad Capitolium; the plural, ad templa, ad Capitolia. So with the common gender in the singular number, ad civem, ad hostem, ad sacerdotem; in the plural, ad cives, ad hostes; ad sacerdotes.

Thus, then, you will observe all prepositions, keeping, as I said, the genders and the numbers, singular and plural. Keep likewise the pronouns according to gender: masculine, ad hunc; plural, ad hos; feminine, ad hanc; plural, ad has. Neuter, ad hoc templum vado; plural, ad hæc templa. So in the common gender, ad hunc et ad hanc sacerdotem; plural, ad hos et ad has sacerdotes; so ad hos et ad has hostes. In these they attend to the ablative both in the singular and in the plural, keeping the genders and numbers: for example, a, ab, abs, cum, coram, clam, de, e, ex, pro, præ, palam, sine, absque, tenus. Masculine singular, as a fratre; plural, a fratribus. Feminine singular, a sorore, or a sororibus, or a civitate, a civitatibus. From the masculine singular, ab amico; plural, ab amicis, ab agro, ab agris. Feminine singular, ab urbe; plural, ab urbibus. Neuter singular, ab templo; plural, ab templis. From the common singular, a cive; plural, a civibus, ab hoste, ab hostibus. Keep this declension in all these ablative prepositions according to gender and number. There remains the third species of prepositions, which are called of both kinds, which keep both the accusative case and the ablative.

CHAPTER XXVII. — The twofold kind of prepositions that are called "of both."

But the reason of these prepositions escapes most people, and it is from what distinction it may be understood that it does not appear to one who is about to set it forth. The difference lies in motion and in place. But some have thought that motion governs the accusative only; yet it governs both, but by a fixed rule. For motion governs the accusative case when we signify that we are moving from places into other places, as "I run into the forum," or "into the field." And if we say that you are running from another place into the forum or into the field, we keep the accusative case. If, however, it is in one and the same place, the ablative: as "I run in the forum," "I run in the field"; so "I walk in the forum," and "I walk in the field." If we walk from another place into the forum, we keep the accusative. If we walk in the same place, we keep the ablative, as "I walk in the forum"; so "he falls into the forum," and "he falls in the forum." Virgil: "And she enters the ground, and hides herself among the clouds" (Aeneid 4.177). That is, "she walks more deeply in the fields" (Georgics 3.75–76), that is, she walks: you see that there is motion, and yet it claims the ablative for itself; but in a place, as I said, not from place to place. So we say "fallen into the fishpond," and "about to fall in the fishpond." If he falls from another place into the fishpond, it is the accusative; but if he falls in the same fishpond, it is the ablative. "I come," however, is always accusative, because someone wishes [to go] from place to place. But when someone is already in a place, the motion ceases.

Likewise, for motion from a place into a grove: "volvo" or "evolvo": "To find a way by which Xanthus might roll himself out into the sea" (Aeneid 5.807–808) — namely, from his channel into the sea. But when it means being rolled about in that same place, it takes the ablative: as "they are rolled about in the lowest bottom" (ibid. 6.581). So "sub," when it denotes motion from place to place, takes the accusative. Of the spear Virgil speaks thus: "under the breast," "under that thing." Likewise "sub" with the ablative: "beneath the lofty walls of Troy it befell them to die" (ibid. 1.99–100), that is, to fall or lie. "Beneath the lofty walls of Troy," he says. Likewise for motion from place to place: "or beneath the shifting shadows as the west winds change" (Eclogues 5.5). And he added, "we come up," where there is motion from place to place. "Super" for motion: "He shall extend his empire over the Garamantes and the Indians" (Aeneid 6.794–795) — this is motion. But in a place: "the twin doves settle upon the tree" (ibid. p. 203). Likewise "subter" for motion from place to place: as "beneath the roof of the narrow dwelling he led mighty Aeneas" (ibid. 8.366–367). But in a place: "it is a pleasure to bear all chances beneath the dense shell" (ibid. 9.513–514). So "sub," if motion is made from place to place, takes the accusative: as "I run under the cave." But if you run while placed beneath that same cave, it takes the ablative: as "I run beneath the cave." Likewise "super," if motion is made from place to place, takes the accusative: "I run over the roof." But if someone placed upon the roof runs, it takes the ablative: "I run upon the roof.

Thus, with "subter fluctus mergo," if the motion is from the shore into the act of sinking, the accusative is used, as in "mergo subter fluctus"; but if someone is already among the waves, "subter fluctibus mergitur." But two adverbs of place, "quo" and "ubi," greatly assist this expression and observation. "Quo" denotes motion into a place; "ubi" denotes being situated in a place: for example, "quo venit telum? in hostem"; "ubi haesit? in hoste." "Quo voluit Catilina telum dirigere? in consulis corpus"; "ubi voluit defigi? in consulis corpore." For thus he says of the dagger: "Ut eam putes in consulis corpore defigere." So when we say "quo fugimus?" it means, of course, into a place. "Ubi latet? in loco." Therefore, as we said, these two adverbs assist in distinguishing the prepositions of each case, which is otherwise confusing. For by this principle of adverbs that passage in the Verrines is also cleared up: "Quod ille in caput ab hostium duce acceperat." He had received, then, a wound directed "in caput," and received "in capite." Do we ever say "Quo accipis vulnus?" Not at all; but "Ubi accipis." And Virgil's "Quo ire iubes?" signifies into a place. But "in loco," as in "ubi ponere sedes"? Situation, however, takes the ablative, because it is the opposite of motion. For the noun itself signifies a kind of sitting, as for instance, "sum in foro, eram in foro, fui in foro, futurus sum in foro." Likewise, simply, "sedeo, iaceo, cubo, sto, consisto, haereo." All these pertain to situation.

Therefore these things must be meditated upon and put into practice, so that in this form of prepositions we may show that we have studied carefully to speak both correctly and without any hesitation.

CHAPTER XXVIII. — On the interjection.

The interjection is indeed a part of speech, but a sign of the affection of the mind bursting forth into voice: and it signifies either joy, as "evax"; or bitterness, as "heu," among the Greeks. Therefore, as many as there are disturbed motions of the mind, so many voices do they utter: and they are called interjections, because they interrupt the speech, as is that passage: "Here among the dense cornel-bushes—for just now twin kids, the hope of the flock—soon an interjection through the letter a, ah! having labored on the bare flint, she left them." (Eclogue 1, vv. 14–15.) In the middle of the speech the letter a is interjected.

CHAPTER XXIX. — Epilogue. And on the names of numbers.

All the parts of speech have been run through by us, in such a way as may suffice for a compendium, whether for the busy or the negligent. Indeed, what we have omitted, we set forth in the treatment of the noun. For we ought to know that the names of numbers from four up to a hundred are of every gender: as "quatuor viri," "quatuor feminæ," "quatuor municipia." Thus through all the cases we say "quatuor": for example, "virorum quatuor," "mulierum quatuor," "mancipiolum quatuor." Thus in the dative, "viris quatuor," "feminis quatuor," "mancipiis quatuor." Thus in the accusative, "viros quatuor," "feminas quatuor," "mancipia quatuor." Thus in the vocative, "o viri quatuor," "o feminæ quatuor," "o mancipia quatuor." Thus in the ablative, "a viris quatuor," "a feminis quatuor," "a mancipiis quatuor.

But I said this because from four up to a hundred they are declined, since two is declined: duorum, duobus, duos or duo, o duo, ab his duobus. So also three is declined and runs through the cases: nominative hi and hae tres, genitive horum et harum trium, dative his tribus, accusative hos et has tres, vocative o tres, ablative ab his tribus. From the neuter gender: haec tria, horum trium, his tribus, haec tria, o tria, ab his tribus. From this form, therefore, we understand how we should decline: hic duumvir, as it were one man of two men. So triumvir, one man of three men. Therefore this admits the genitive. Now four, since it is indeclinable, we say quattuorviri, or quinqueviri, or sexviri. Hence Lucan: septemvirque epulis, he put septem for the genitive. From two hundred up to nine hundred the names of numbers are declined, as hi ducenti, hae ducentae, neuter ducenta: mille is declinable.