καὶ μήν, ὅπερ καὶ ἄνω που ἐλέγετο, εἰ πᾶν σῶμα μεριζόμενον καὶ ὄγκος πᾶς ἀφαιρεῖται ὅπερ ἦν, κερματιζομένου δὲ τοῦ σώματος ἐφ' ἑκάστῳ μέρει ἡ αὐτὴ ὅλη ποιότης μένει, οἷον ἡ γλυκύτης ἡ τοῦ μέλιτος οὐδὲν ἔλαττον γλυκύτης ἐστὶν ἐφ' ἑκάστῳ, οὐκ ἂν εἴη σῶμα ἡ γλυκύτης, ὁμοίως καὶ αἱ ἄλλαι. ἔπειτα εἰ σώματα ἦσαν αἱ δυνάμεις, ἀναγκαῖον ἦν τὰς μὲν ἰσχυρὰς τῶν δυνάμεων μεγάλους ὄγκους, τὰς δὲ ὀλίγον δρᾶν δυναμένας ὄγκους μικροὺς εἶναι. εἰ δὲ μεγάλων μὲν τῶν ὄγκων μικραί, ὀλίγοι δὲ καὶ μικρότατοι τῶν ὄγκων μεγίστας ἔχουσι τὰς δυνάμεις, ἄλλῳ τινὶ ἢ μεγέθει τὸ ποιεῖν ἀναθετέον· ἀμεγέθει ἄρα. τὸ δὲ ὕλην μὲν τὴν αὐτὴν εἶναι, σῶμα ὥς
φασιν οὖσαν, διάφορα δὲ ποιεῖν ποιότητας προσβαλοῦσαν, πῶς οὐ δῆλον ποιεῖ τὰ προσγενόμενα λόγους αὐτοὺς καὶ ἀσωμάτους εἶναι; μὴ διότι πνεύματος ἢ αἵματος ἀποστάντων ἀποθνήσκει τὰ ζῷα, λεγόντων. οὐ γὰρ ἔστιν ἄνευ τούτων εἶναι οὐδ' ἄνευ πολλῶν ἄλλων, ὧν οὐδὲν ἂν ἡ ψυχὴ εἴη. καὶ μὴν οὔτε πνεῦμα διὰ πάντων οὔτε αἷμα, ψυχὴ δέ. Ἔτι εἰ σῶμα οὖσα ἡ ψυχὴ διῆλθε διὰ παντός, κἂν κραθεῖσα εἴη ὃν τρόπον τοῖς ἄλλοις σώμασιν ἡ κρᾶσις. εἰ δὲ ἡ τῶν σωμάτων κρᾶσις οὐδὲν ἐνεργείᾳ ἐᾷ εἶναι τῶν κραθέντων, οὐδ' ἂν ἡ ψυχὴ ἔτι ἐνεργείᾳ ἐνείη τοῖς σώμασιν, ἀλλὰ δυνάμει μόνον, ἀπολέσασα τὸ εἶναι ψυχή, ὥσπερ, εἰ γλυκὺ καὶ πικρὸν κραθείη, τὸ γλυκὺ οὐκ ἔστιν· οὐκ ἄρα ἔχομεν ψυχήν.
And indeed, as was said somewhere above, if every body when divided and every mass when diminished loses what it was, while when the body is broken up, the same whole quality remains in each part—for example, the sweetness of honey is no less sweetness in each part—then sweetness would not be a body, and similarly for the other qualities. Next, if the powers were bodies, it would be necessary that strong powers be large masses, and those capable of acting only slightly be small masses. But if large masses have small powers, and small and very tiny masses have the greatest powers, then the power to act must be attributed to something other than magnitude; therefore, to something without magnitude. And that matter is the same, being, as they say, a body, but produces different things by adding qualities—how does this not make it clear that the added qualities are themselves principles and incorporeal? Not because animals die when breath or blood departs, as they say. For it is not possible to exist without these, nor without many other things, none of which would be the soul. And indeed, neither breath nor blood pervades everything, but the soul does. Further, if the soul, being a body, passed through everything, it would be mixed in the way that mixture occurs with other bodies. But if the mixture of bodies leaves none of the mixed things in actuality, then the soul would no longer be present in the bodies in actuality, but only in potentiality, having lost its being as soul—just as, if sweet and bitter are mixed, the sweet is not present; therefore, we do not have a soul.
τὸ δὲ δὴ σῶμα ὂν σώματι κεκρᾶσθαι ὅλον δι' ὅλων, ὡς ὅπου ἂν ᾖ θάτερον, καὶ θάτερον εἶναι, ἴσον ὄγκον ἀμφοτέρων καὶ τὸ πᾶν κατεχόντων, καὶ μηδεμίαν αὔξην γεγονέναι ἐπεμβληθέντος τοῦ ἑτέρου οὐδὲν ἀπολείψει ὃ μὴ τέμῃ. οὐ γὰρ κατὰ μεγάλα μέρη παραλλὰξ ἡ κρᾶσις οὕτω γάρ φασι παράθεσιν ἔσεσθαι, διεληλυθὸς δὲ διὰ παντός, τὸ ἐπεμβληθὲν ἐπὶ σμικρότερον ὅπερ ἀδύνατον, τὸ ἔλαττον ἴσον γενέσθαι τῷ μείζονι, ἀλλ' οὖν διεληλυθὸς πᾶν τέμοι κατὰ πᾶν. ἀνάγκη τοίνυν, εἰ καθ' ὁτιοῦν σημεῖον καὶ μὴ μεταξὺ σῶμα ἔσται ὃ μὴ τέτμηται, εἰς σημεῖα τὴν διαίρεσιν τοῦ σώματος γεγονέναι, ὅπερ ἀδύνατον. εἰ δὲ ἀπείρου τῆς τομῆς οὔσης ὃ γὰρ ἂν λάβῃς σῶμα διαίρετόν ἐστιν, οὐ δυνάμει μόνον, ἐνεργείᾳ δὲ τὰ ἄπειρα ἔσται. οὐ τοίνυν ὅλον δι' ὅλου χωρεῖν δυνατὸν τὸ σῶμα, ἡ δὲ ψυχὴ δι' ὅλων· ἀσώματος ἄρα. Τὸ δὲ καὶ φύσιν μὲν προτέραν τὸ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα λέγειν, ἐν δὲ ψυχρῷ γενομένην καὶ στομωθεῖσαν ψυχὴν γίγνεσθαι, λεπτοτέραν ἐν ψυχρῷ γιγνομένην ὃ δὴ καὶ αὐτὸ ἄτοπον· πολλὰ γὰρ ζῷα ἐν θερμῷ γίγνεται καὶ ψυχὴν ἔχει οὐ ψυχθεῖσαν· ἀλλ' οὖν φασί γε προτέραν φύσιν ψυχῆς εἶναι κατὰ συντυχίας τὰς ἔξω γιγνομένην. συμβαίνει οὖν αὐτοῖς τὸ χεῖρον πρῶτον ποιεῖν καὶ πρὸ τούτου ἄλλο ἔλαττον, ἣν λέγουσιν ἕξιν. ὁ δὲ νοῦς ὕστατος, ἀπὸ τῆς ψυχῆς δηλονότι γενόμενος, ἢ εἰ πρὸ πάντων νοῦς, ἐφεξῆς ἔδει ψυχὴν ποιεῖν, εἶτα φύσιν· καὶ αἰεὶ τὸ ὕστερον χεῖρον, εἴπερ πέφυκεν. εἰ οὖν καὶ ὁ θεὸς αὐτοῖς κατὰ τὸν νοῦν ὕστερος καὶ γενητὸς καὶ ἐπακτὸν τὸ νοεῖν ἔχων, ἐνδέχοιτο ἂν μηδὲ ψυχὴν μηδὲ νοῦν μηδὲ θεὸν εἶναι·
That a body should be mixed with a body throughout the whole, so that wherever one is, the other also is, both occupying equal bulk and the whole, and that no increase has occurred when the other is added, will leave no part which it does not cut. For the mixture is not by large parts alternately, for they say that would be juxtaposition; but having permeated everything, the added body, to a smaller extent—which is impossible, the smaller becoming equal to the larger—nevertheless, having permeated everything, it would cut everything throughout. Therefore, if at any point and without a body in between there will be something which is not cut, the division of the body must have occurred into points, which is impossible. But if the division is infinite—for whatever body you take is divisible, not only potentially, but actually the infinite parts will exist—then it is not possible for body to permeate body throughout the whole; but the soul permeates throughout; therefore it is incorporeal. And to say that the same spirit is a prior nature, but when it becomes in cold and is tempered becomes soul, becoming finer in cold—this itself is absurd; for many animals are generated in heat and have a soul not chilled; but nevertheless they say that the prior nature of the soul comes to be according to external circumstances. Consequently, they make the worse first, and before this another lesser thing, which they call habit. And intellect is last, evidently coming from the soul; or if intellect is before all things, then next they should make soul, then nature; and always the later is worse, if it is natural. Therefore, if even god for them is posterior according to intellect, and is generated and has intellection as an addition, it would be possible that neither soul nor intellect nor god exists.
εἰ τὸ δυνάμει, μὴ ὄντος πρότερον τοῦ ἐνεργείᾳ καὶ νοῦ, γένοιτο, οὐδὲ ἥξει εἰς ἐνέργειαν. τί γὰρ ἔσται τὸ ἄγον, μὴ ὄντος ἑτέρου παρ' αὐτὸ προτέρου; εἰ δ' αὑτὸ ἄξει εἰς ἐνέργειαν, ὅπερ ἄτοπον, ἀλλὰ βλέπον γε πρός τι ἄξει, ὃ οὐ δυνάμει, ἐνεργείᾳ δὲ ἔσται. καίτοι τὸ ἀεὶ μένειν τὸ αὐτὸ εἴπερ τὸ δυνάμει ἕξει, καθ' ἑαυτὸ εἰς ἐνέργειαν ἥξει, καὶ τοῦτο κρεῖττον ἔσται τοῦ δυναμένου, οἷον ὀρεκτὸν ὂν ἐκείνου. πρότερον ἄρα τὸ κρεῖττον καὶ ἑτέραν φύσιν ἔχον σώματος καὶ ἐνεργείᾳ ὂν ἀεί· πρότερον ἄρα καὶ νοῦς καὶ ψυχὴ φύσεως. οὐκ ἄρα οὕτως ψυχὴ ὡς πνεῦμα οὐδ' ὡς σῶμα. ἀλλ' ὅτι μὲν μὴ σῶμα, λέγοιτ' ἄν, καὶ εἴρηται καὶ ἄλλοις ἕτερα, ἱκανὰ δὲ καὶ ταῦτα. Ἐπεὶ δὲ ἄλλης φύσεως, δεῖ ζητεῖν τίς αὕτη. ἆρ' οὖν ἕτερον μὲν σώματος, σώματος δέ τι, οἷον ἁρμονία; τοῦτο γὰρ ἁρμονίαν τῶν ἀμφὶ Πυθαγόραν λεγόντων ἕτερον τρόπον, ᾠήθησαν αὐτὸ τοιοῦτόν τι εἶναι οἷον καὶ ἡ περὶ χορδὰς ἁρμονία. ὡς γὰρ ἐνταῦθα ἐντεταμένων τῶν χορδῶν ἐπιγίνεταί τι οἷον πάθημα ἐπ' αὐταῖς, ὃ λέγεται ἁρμονία, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ τοῦ ἡμετέρου σώματος, ἐν κράσει ἀνομοίων γινομένου, τὴν ποιὰν κρᾶσιν ζωήν τε ἐργάζεσθαι καὶ ψυχήν, οὖσαν τὸ ἐπὶ τῇ κράσει πάθημα. ὅτι δὲ ἀδύνατον, πολλὰ ἤδη πρὸς ταύτην τὴν δόξαν εἴρηται. καὶ γὰρ ὅτι τὸ μὲν πρότερον, ἡ ψυχή, ἡ δ' ἁρμονία ὕστερον, καὶ ὡς τὸ μὲν ἄρχει καὶ ἐπιστατεῖ τῷ σώματι καὶ μάχεται πολλαχῇ, ἁρμονία δὲ οὐκ ἂν οὖσα ταῦτα ποιοῖ· καὶ ὡς τὸ μὲν οὐσία, ἡ δὲ ἁρμονία οὐκ οὐσία· καὶ ὅτι ἡ κρᾶσις τῶν σωμάτων, ἐξ ὧν συνέσταμεν, ἐν λόγῳ οὖσα, ὑγεία ἂν εἴη·
If that which is potential, when that which is actual and intellect did not exist beforehand, were to come to be, it would never arrive at actuality. For what will be that which leads, if there is no other prior to it? But if it itself leads itself to actuality, which is absurd, yet it will look to something that will lead, which is not potential but actual. And yet, if that which is potential is to remain always the same, it will come to actuality by itself, and this will be better than that which is potential, as being an object of desire for it. Therefore, the better is prior and has a nature different from body, and is always in actuality. Therefore, intellect and soul are prior to nature. Soul, then, is not such as breath nor as body. But that it is not body might be said, and has been said by others in different ways, and these arguments are sufficient. Since it is of a different nature, we must seek what this is. Is it, then, something other than body, but a property of body, such as harmony? For this is the view of those around Pythagoras, who thought it to be something like the harmony in strings. For just as in that case, when strings are stretched, a certain affection arises upon them, which is called harmony, so also in the case of our body, when a mixture of unlike elements occurs, a certain mixture produces life and soul, which is the affection upon the mixture. But that this is impossible has already been said in many ways against this opinion. For the soul is prior, while harmony is posterior; and the soul rules and governs the body and fights against it in many ways, which harmony, not being a substance, could not do; and the soul is a substance, while harmony is not a substance; and the mixture of bodies from which we are composed, being in a ratio, would be health.
καὶ ὅτι καθ' ἕκαστον μέρος ἄλλως κραθὲν εἴη ἂν ψυχὴ ἑτέρα, ὥστε πολλὰς εἶναι· καὶ τὸ δὴ μέγιστον, ὡς ἀνάγκη πρὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ταύτης ἄλλην ψυχὴν εἶναι τὴν ποιοῦσαν τὴν ἁρμονίαν ταύτην, οἷον ἐπὶ τῶν ὀργάνων τὸν μουσικὸν τὸν ἐντιθέντα ταῖς χορδαῖς τὴν ἁρμονίαν, λόγον ἔχοντα παρ' αὑτῷ, καθ' ὃν ἁρμόσει. οὔτε γὰρ ἐκεῖ αἱ χορδαὶ παρ' αὑτῶν οὔτ' ἐνταῦθα τὰ σώματα ἑαυτὰ εἰς ἁρμονίαν ἄγειν δυνήσεται. ὅλως δὲ καὶ οὗτοι ἐξ ἀψύχου ἔμψυχα ποιοῦσι καὶ τὰ ἐξ ἀτάκτων κατὰ συντυχίαν τεταγμένα καὶ τὴν τάξιν οὐκ ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς, ἀλλ' αὐτὴν ἐκ τῆς αὐτομάτου τάξεως τὴν ὑπόστασιν εἰληφέναι. τοῦτο δὲ οὔτε ἐν τοῖς κατὰ μέρος οὔτε ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις δυνατὸν γενέσθαι. οὐκ ἄρα ἡ ψυχὴ ἁρμονία.» Ταῦτα μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν Πλωτίνου πρὸς τὴν τῶν Στωϊκῶν περὶ ψυχῆς δόξαν, σωματικὴν φασκόντων αὐτὴν εἶναι. ἀλλ' ἐπεὶ αὐτάρκως τά τε πρὸς Ἀριστοτέλην καὶ τὸν Περίπατον τά τε πρὸς τὴν τῶν Στωϊκῶν αἵρεσιν, ὡς ἐν ἐπιτομῇ, παρατέθειμαι, ὥρα πάλιν ἐπανελθόντα τῶν γενναίων φιλοσόφων ὁμοῦ πάντων τὰς θαυμαστὰς ἐπισκέψασθαι φυσιολογίας, ὅτε μάλιστα κοινῶς πάντες Ἕλληνες θεοὺς ὁρατοὺς ἥλιον καὶ σελήνην καὶ τοὺς λοιποὺς ἀστέρας τά τε ἄλλα μέρη τοῦ κόσμου ἡγήσαντό τε καὶ ἐσέφθησαν, καὶ τάς γε μυθικὰς καὶ ληρώδεις αὐτῶν περὶ τῆς πολυθέου πλάνης διηγήσεις σεμνοτέραις δὴ καὶ φυσικαῖς ἀποδόσεσιν ἐπὶ τὰ στοιχεῖα καὶ τὰ τοῦ παντὸς κόσμου μόρια μετενηνόχασι. διό μοι ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι δοκεῖ καὶ τὰς περὶ τῶνδε δόξας ὁμοῦ συναγαγεῖν τάς τε διαστάσεις αὐτῶν καὶ τοῦ τύφου τὸ μάταιον ἐπιθεωρῆσαι.
And that in each part, if blended differently, there would be a different soul, so that there would be many; and, most importantly, that before this soul there must be another soul that produces this harmony, as in the case of instruments, the musician who imparts harmony to the strings, having within himself the principle according to which he will harmonize. For neither there can the strings by themselves, nor here can the bodies themselves, bring themselves into harmony. In general, these thinkers also make ensouled things from the soulless, and ordered things from disordered ones by chance, and they suppose that order does not come from the soul, but that the soul itself has derived its existence from spontaneous order. But this is impossible, both in particular cases and in others. Therefore, the soul is not harmony. These are from Plotinus against the Stoic doctrine of the soul, who claim it is corporeal. But since I have sufficiently set forth, in summary, both the arguments against Aristotle and the Peripatos and those against the Stoic school, it is time to return and examine the wonderful natural philosophies of all the noble philosophers together, especially since all Greeks commonly considered and revered the visible gods—the sun, the moon, and the other stars, as well as the other parts of the cosmos—and have transferred their mythical and absurd narratives of polytheistic error to more solemn and natural interpretations, referring them to the elements and the parts of the whole universe. Therefore, it seems necessary to me to gather together the opinions on these matters and to observe their divergences and the vanity of their conceit.
θήσω δὲ καὶ ταῦτα ἀπὸ τῆς Πλουτάρχου γραφῆς, ἐν ᾗ τὰς περὶ τούτων ἁπάντων ὁμοῦ τῶν τε πρεσβυτέρων καὶ νέων δόξας συναγαγὼν τοῦτον γράφει τὸν τρόπον· κγʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΗΛΙΟΥ «Ἀναξίμανδρος κύκλον εἶναι ὀκτωκαιεικοσαπλασίονα τῆς γῆς, ἁρματείῳ τροχῷ τὴν ἁψῖδα παραπλήσιον ἔχοντα, κοῖλον, πλήρη πυρός, κατά τι μέρος ἐκφαίνοντα διὰ στομίου τὸ πῦρ, ὥσπερ διὰ πρηστῆρος αὐλοῦ· καὶ τοῦτο εἶναι τὸν ἥλιον. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ πυριδίων τῶν φαινομένων συναθροιζομένων μὲν ἐκ τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως, συναθροιζόντων δὲ τὸν ἥλιον ἐκ νεφῶν πεπυρωμένων. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ ἄναμμα νοερὸν ἐκ θαλάσσης. Πλάτων πλείστου πυρός. Ἀναξαγόρας, Δημόκριτος, Μητρόδωρος μύδρον ἢ πέτρον διάπυρον. Ἀριστοτέλης σφαῖραν ἐκ τοῦ πέμπτου σώματος. Φιλόλαος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος δίσκον ὑαλοειδῆ, δεχόμενον μὲν τοῦ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ πυρὸς τὴν ἀνταύγειαν, διηθοῦντα δὲ πρὸς ἡμᾶς τὸ φῶς· ὥστε προσεοικέναι ἡλίου τὸ ἐν οὐρανῷ πυρῶδες τῇ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐνόπτρου κατὰ ἀνάκλασιν διασπειρομένῃ πρὸς ἡμᾶς αὐγῇ· καὶ γὰρ ταύτην προσονομάζομεν ἥλιον, οἱονεὶ εἴδωλον εἰδώλου. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δύο ἡλίους, τὸν μὲν ἀρχέτυπον πῦρ ἐν τῷ ἑτέρῳ ἡμισφαιρίῳ τοῦ κόσμου πεπληρωκὸς τὸ ἡμισφαίριον ἀεὶ καταντικρὺ τῆς ἀνταυγείας ἑαυτοῦ, τὸν δὲ φαινόμενον ἀνταύγειαν εἶναι ἐν τῷ ἑτέρῳ ἡμισφαιρίῳ τῷ τοῦ ἀέρος τοῦ θερμοειδοῦς πεπληρωμένῳ, ἀπὸ κυκλοτεροῦς τῆς γῆς κατ' ἔμφασιν γιγνόμενον ἥλιον. ὡς δὲ διὰ βραχέος εἰρῆσθαι συντεμόντα, πῦρ εἶναι τὸν ἥλιον. Ἐπίκουρος γήινον πύκνωμα κισσηροειδὲς καὶ σπογγοειδὲς ταῖς κατατρήσεσιν, ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς ἀνημμένον.
I will also set down these things from the writing of Plutarch, in which, having gathered together the opinions about all these matters, both of the older and the newer thinkers, he writes in this manner: 23. ON THE SUN. "Anaximander says that the sun is a circle twenty-eight times the size of the earth, having a rim like that of a chariot wheel, hollow, full of fire, and showing the fire through an opening at a certain part, as through the tube of a fire-bellows; and that this is the sun. Xenophanes says that the sun is composed of small fiery particles gathered from the moist exhalation, and that these particles, when gathered together, form the sun from fiery clouds. The Stoics say that the sun is an intelligent kindling from the sea. Plato says that it is mostly fire. Anaxagoras, Democritus, and Metrodorus say that it is a red-hot mass or a fiery stone. Aristotle says that it is a sphere composed of the fifth body. Philolaus the Pythagorean says that it is a glass-like disk, receiving the reflection of the fire in the cosmos and straining the light through to us; so that the fiery thing in the heaven resembles the sun, like the light dispersed to us from a mirror by reflection; for we call this the sun, as it were an image of an image. Empedocles says that there are two suns: one, the archetypal fire in the other hemisphere of the cosmos, always filling that hemisphere opposite its own reflection; and the other, the apparent sun, which is a reflection in the other hemisphere, which is filled with hot air, and which becomes the sun by reflection from the circular earth. To speak concisely, they say that the sun is fire. Epicurus says that it is an earthy condensation, like pumice or sponge, with perforations, kindled by fire.
κδʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΜΕΓΕΘΟΥΣ ΗΛΙΟΥ Ἀναξίμανδρος τὸν μὲν ἥλιον ἴσον εἶναι τῇ γῇ, τὸν δὲ κύκλον ἀφ' οὗ τὴν ἐκπνοὴν ἔχει καὶ ὑφ' οὗ φέρεται, ἑπτακαιεικοσαπλασίω τῆς γῆς. Ἀναξαγόρας πολλαπλάσιον Πελοποννήσου. Ἡράκλειτος εὖρος ποδὸς ἀνθρωπείου. Ἐπίκουρος τηλικοῦτον ἡλίκος καὶ ὁποῖος φαίνεται, ἢ μικρῷ τι μείζω ἢ ἐλάττω.
κεʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΣΧΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΗΛΙΟΥ Ἀναξιμένης πλατὺν ὡς πέταλον. Ἡράκλειτος σκαφοειδῆ, ὑπόκυρτον. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ σφαιροειδῆ ὡς τὸν κόσμον καὶ τὰ ἄστρα. Ἐπίκουρος ἐνδέχεσθαι τὰ προειρημένα πάντα.» Τοιοῦτος μὲν αὐτοῖς ὁ μέγας τῶν κατ' οὐρανὸν φαινομένων θεὸς ἥλιος. Μωσῆς δὲ καὶ τὰ Ἑβραίων λόγια οὐδὲν τούτων περιεργάζονται.
κ ʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΣΕΛΗΝΗΣ «Ἀναξίμανδρος κύκλον εἶναι ἐννεακαιδεκαπλασίονα τῆς γῆς, ὡς ἐπὶ τοῦ ἡλίου πλήρη πυρός, ἐκλείπειν δὲ κατὰ τὰς ἐπιστροφὰς τοῦ τροχοῦ· ὅμοιον δὲ εἶναι ἁρματείῳ τροχῷ κοίλην ἔχοντι τὴν ἁψῖδα καὶ πυρὸς πλήρη, ἔχοντα μίαν ἐκπνοήν. Ξενοφάνης νέφος εἶναι πεπιλημένον. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ μικτὸν ἐκ πυρὸς καὶ ἀέρος. Πλάτων ἐκ πλείονος τοῦ γεώδους. Ἀναξαγόρας, Δημόκριτος στερέωμα διάπυρον, ἔχον ἐν ἑαυτῷ πεδία καὶ ὄρη καὶ φάραγγας. Ἡράκλειτος γῆν ὁμίχλῃ περιεχομένην. Πυθαγόρας κατὰ τὸ πυροειδὲς σχῆμα.
24. ON THE SIZE OF THE SUN Anaximander says the sun is equal to the earth, but the circle from which it draws its exhalation and by which it is carried is twenty-seven times the size of the earth. Anaxagoras says it is many times the size of the Peloponnese. Heraclitus says it is a foot wide. Epicurus says it is as large as it appears, or a little larger or smaller.
25. ON THE SHAPE OF THE SUN Anaximenes says it is flat like a leaf. Heraclitus says it is bowl-shaped, convex. The Stoics say it is spherical, like the cosmos and the stars. Epicurus says all the aforementioned shapes are possible. Such is their great god of the heavenly phenomena, the sun. But Moses and the oracles of the Hebrews do not concern themselves with any of these things.
26. ON THE MOON Anaximander says it is a circle nineteen times the size of the earth, like that of the sun full of fire, and it is eclipsed at the turnings of the wheel; it is like a chariot wheel with a hollow rim full of fire, having a single exhalation. Xenophanes says it is a compressed cloud. The Stoics say it is a mixture of fire and air. Plato says it is composed mostly of earth. Anaxagoras and Democritus say it is a fiery solid, containing within itself plains, mountains, and ravines. Heraclitus says it is earth surrounded by mist. Pythagoras says it is like the fiery shape.
κζʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΜΕΓΕΘΟΥΣ ΣΕΛΗΝΗΣ Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ μείζονα τῆς γῆς ἀποφαίνονται, ὡς καὶ τὸν ἥλιον. Παρμενίδης ἴσον τῷ ἡλίῳ· καὶ γὰρ ἀπ' αὐτοῦ φωτίζεσθαι.
κηʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΣΧΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΣΕΛΗΝΗΣ Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ σφαιροειδῆ εἶναι ὡς τὸν ἥλιον. Ἡράκλειτος σκαφοειδῆ. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δισκοειδῆ. ἄλλοι κυλινδροειδῆ.
κθʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΦΩΤΙΣΜΩΝ ΣΕΛΗΝΗΣ Ἀναξίμανδρος ἴδιον αὐτὴν ἔχειν φῶς, ἀραιότερον δέ πως. Ἀντιφῶν ἰδίῳ φέγγει λάμπειν τὴν σελήνην· τὸ δ' ὑποκρυπτόμενον περὶ αὐτὴν ἀπὸ τῆς προσβολῆς τοῦ ἡλίου ἀμαυροῦσθαι, πεφυκότος τοῦ ἰσχυροτέρου πυρὸς τὸ ἀσθενέστερον ἀμαυροῦν· ὃ δὴ συμβαίνει καὶ περὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἄστρα. Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ ἀπ' αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου φωτίζεσθαι τὴν σελήνην. Ἡράκλειτος τὸ αὐτὸ πεπονθέναι τὸν ἥλιον καὶ τὴν σελήνην· σκαφοειδεῖς γὰρ ὄντας τοῖς σχήμασι τοὺς ἀστέρας, δεχομένους τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως φωτίζεσθαι πρὸς τὴν φαντασίαν· λαμπρότερον μὲν τὸν ἥλιον, ἐν καθαρωτέρῳ γὰρ ἀέρι φέρεσθαι, τὴν δὲ σελήνην ἐν θολερῷ, διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἀμαυροτέραν φαίνεσθαι.
27. ON THE SIZE OF THE MOON The Stoics declare it larger than the earth, as also the sun. Parmenides says it is equal to the sun; for it is illuminated by it.
28. ON THE SHAPE OF THE MOON The Stoics say it is spherical, like the sun. Heraclitus says it is bowl-shaped. Empedocles says it is disc-shaped. Others say it is cylindrical.
29. ON THE ILLUMINATIONS OF THE MOON Anaximander says it has its own light, but somehow rarer. Antiphon says the moon shines with its own light; but the part of it that is hidden is darkened by the impact of the sun, since stronger fire naturally dims the weaker; which also happens with the other stars. Thales and his followers say the moon is illuminated by the sun. Heraclitus says the sun and the moon undergo the same process; for the stars, being bowl-shaped in form, receive the exhalation from the moist substance and are illuminated to appearance; the sun is brighter because it moves in purer air, while the moon moves in turbid air, and for this reason appears dimmer.
λʹ. ΤΙΣ Η ΟΥΣΙΑ ΤΩΝ ΑΣΤΡΩΝ ΠΛΑΝΗΤΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΛΑΝΩΝ Θαλῆς γεώδη μέν, ἔμπυρα δὲ τὰ ἄστρα. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς πύρινα, ἐκ τοῦ πυρώδους, ὅπερ ὁ ἀὴρ ἐν ἑαυτῷ περιέχων ἐξανέθλιψε κατὰ τὴν πρώτην διάκρισιν.
Ἀναξαγόρας τὸν περικείμενον ἀέρα πύρινον μὲν εἶναι κατὰ τὴν οὐσίαν, τῇ δ' εὐτονίᾳ τῆς περιδινήσεως ἀναρπάσαντα πέτρους ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς καὶ καταφλέξαντα, τούτους ἠστερικέναι. Διογένης κισσηρώδη τὰ ἄστρα, διαπνοίας δ' αὐτὰ νομίζει τοῦ κόσμου. πάλιν ὁ αὐτὸς ἀφανεῖς μὲν λίθους, πίπτοντας δὲ πολλάκις ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν σβέννυσθαι, καθάπερ τὸν ἐν Αἰγὸς Ποταμοῖς πυροειδῶς κατενεχθέντα ἀστέρα πέτρινον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τοὺς μὲν ἀπλανεῖς ἀστέρας συνδεδέσθαι τῷ κρυστάλλῳ, τοὺς δὲ πλάνους ὄντας ἀνεῖσθαι. Πλάτων ἐκ μὲν τοῦ πλείστου μέρους πυρίνους, μετέχοντας δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων, κόλλης δίκην. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ νεφῶν μὲν πεπυρωμένων, σβεννυμένους δὲ καθ' ἑκάστην ἡμέραν ἀναζωπυρεῖν νύκτωρ, καθάπερ τοὺς ἄνθρακας· τὰς γὰρ ἀνατολὰς καὶ τὰς δύσεις ἐξάψεις εἶναι καὶ σβέσεις. Ἡρακλείδης καὶ οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι ἕκαστον τῶν ἀστέρων κόσμον ὑπάρχειν, περιέχοντα αἰθέρα ἐν τῷ ἀπείρῳ. ταῦτα τὰ δόγματα ἐν τοῖς Ὀρφικοῖς ἐμφέρεται κοσμοποιοῦσιν ἕκαστον τῶν ἀστέρων. Ἐπίκουρος οὐδὲν ἀπογινώσκει τούτων, ἐχόμενος τοῦ ἐνδεχομένου.
30. ON THE SUBSTANCE OF THE STARS, PLANETARY AND FIXED Thales says the stars are earthy but fiery. Empedocles says they are fiery, from the fiery element which the air, containing it within itself, squeezed out during the first separation.
Anaxagoras says the surrounding air is fiery in substance, and by the force of its rotation it snatched up rocks from the earth and set them on fire, and these it fixed as stars. Diogenes says the stars are pumice-like, and he considers them to be exhalations of the cosmos. Again, the same philosopher says they are invisible stones, but when they fall to the earth they are extinguished, like the stone star that fell in a fiery manner at Aegospotami. Empedocles says the fixed stars are bound to the crystalline sphere, while the planets are free. Plato says they are for the most part fiery, but also partake of the other elements, like a kind of glue. Xenophanes says they are made of ignited clouds, and are extinguished each day but rekindled at night, like coals; for risings and settings are kindlings and quenchings. Heraclides and the Pythagoreans say each of the stars is a cosmos, containing aether in the infinite. These doctrines are also set forth in the Orphic writings, which represent each of the stars as a cosmos. Epicurus rejects none of these, adhering to what is possible.
λαʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΣΧΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΑΣΤΕΡΩΝ Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ σφαιρικοὺς τοὺς ἀστέρας, καθάπερ τὸν κόσμον καὶ ἥλιον. Ἀναξιμένης ἥλων δίκην καταπεπηγμένους τῷ κρυσταλλοειδεῖ. ἔνιοι δὲ πέταλα πύρινα εἶναι, ὥσπερ ζωγραφήματα.» Τοιαῦτα τοῖς θαυμαστοῖς φιλοσόφοις τὰ περὶ ὧν φασι φαινομένων θεῶν ἐξευρέματα. οἷα δὲ καὶ περὶ τοῦ παντὸς διειλήφασιν, ἐκ τῆς αὐτῆς μάνθανε τοῦ Πλουτάρχου φωνῆς·
λβʹ. ΠΩΣ ΣΥΝΕΣΤΗΚΕΝ Ο ΚΟΣΜΟΣ «Ὁ τοίνυν κόσμος περικεκλασμένῳ σχήματι ἐσχημάτισται τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον· τῶν ἀτόμων σωμάτων ἀπρονόητον καὶ τυχαίαν ἐχόντων τὴν κίνησιν συνεχῶς τε καὶ τάχιστα κινουμένων, εἰς ταὐτὸ πολλὰ σώματα συνηθροίσθη, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ποικιλίαν ἔχοντα καὶ σχημάτων καὶ μεγεθῶν. ἀθροιζομένων δὲ ἐν ταὐτῷ τούτων τὰ μὲν ὅσα μείζονα ἦν καὶ βαρύτατα πάντων ὑπεκάθιζεν, ὅσα δὲ μικρὰ καὶ περιφερῆ καὶ λεῖα καὶ εὐολίσθητα, ταῦτα ἐξεθλί15.32.3 βετο κατὰ τὴν σύνοδον τῶν σωμάτων, εἰς δὲ τὸ μετέωρον ἀνεφέρετο. ὡς οὖν ἐξέλιπεν ἡ πληκτικὴ δύναμις μετεωρίζουσα, οὐκέτι δὲ ἦγεν ἡ πληγὴ πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον, ἐκωλύετο δὲ ταῦτα κάτω φέρεσθαι, ἐβιάζετο δὲ πρὸς τοὺς τόπους τοὺς δυναμένους δέξασθαι. οὗτοι δὲ ἦσαν οἱ πέριξ. καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ πλῆθος τῶν σωμάτων περιεκλᾶτο· περιπλεκόμενα δὲ ἀλλήλοις κατὰ τὴν περίκλασιν τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐγέννησε. τῆς δ' αὐτῆς ἐχόμεναι φύσεως αἱ ἄτομοι, ποικίλαι οὖσαι, καθὼς εἴρηται, πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον ἐξωθούμεναι τὴν τῶν ἄστρων φύσιν ἀπετέλουν. τὸ δὲ πλῆθος τῶν ἀναθυμιωμένων σωμάτων ἔπληττε τὸν ἀέρα καὶ τοῦτον ἐξέθλιβε.
31. ON THE SHAPE OF THE STARS The Stoics say the stars are spherical, like the cosmos and the sun. Anaximenes says they are fixed like nails in the crystalline sphere. Some say they are fiery plates, like paintings. Such are the discoveries of these wondrous philosophers concerning what they call visible gods. Learn also from the same voice of Plutarch what they have conceived about the universe.
32. HOW THE COSMOS IS CONSTITUTED "Now the cosmos has been formed in a bent shape in this manner: the atomic bodies, having an unplanned and random motion, moving continuously and very swiftly, many bodies were gathered together in the same place, and because of this they have a variety of both shapes and sizes. As these were being gathered together in the same place, those that were larger and heaviest settled down beneath all, while those that were small, round, smooth, and easily rolled were squeezed out during the collision of the bodies and were carried up into the air. So when the striking force that raised them up ceased, and the blow no longer carried them to the height, and they were prevented from moving downward, they were forced toward the places that could receive them. These were the surrounding regions. And in addition to this, the mass of bodies was bent around; intertwining with each other in the bending, they generated the heaven. The atoms, adhering to the same nature, being varied as has been said, when thrust out toward the height, produced the nature of the stars. And the mass of bodies that were vaporized struck the air and squeezed it out.
πνευματούμενος δὲ οὗτος κατὰ τὴν κίνησιν καὶ περιλαμβάνων τὰ ἄστρα συμπεριῆγεν αὐτὰ καὶ τὴν συμπεριφορὰν αὐτῶν μετέωρον ἐφύλαττε. κἄπειτα ἐκ μὲν τῶν ὑποκαθιζόντων ἐγεννήθη ἡ γῆ, ἐκ δὲ τῶν μετεωριζομένων οὐρανός, πῦρ, ἀήρ. πολλῆς δὲ ὕλης ἔτι περιειλημμένης ἐν τῇ γῇ, πυκνουμένης δὲ ταύτης κατὰ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν σωμάτων πληγὰς καὶ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀστέρων αὐγάς, προσεθλίβετο πᾶς ὁ μικρομερὴς σχηματισμὸς ταύτης καὶ τὴν ὑγρὰν φύσιν ἐγέννα. ῥευστικῶς δ' αὕτη διακειμένη κατεφέρετο πρὸς τοὺς κοίλους τόπους καὶ δυναμένους χωρῆσαί τε καὶ στέξαι· ἢ καθ'
ἑαυτὸ τὸ ὕδωρ ὑποστὰν ἐκοίλανε τοὺς ὑποκειμένους τόπους.» Τοιαύτη καὶ ἡ θαυμάσιος αὐτῶν κοσμογονία. συνῆπται δὲ τούτοις ἄλλη τις πλείστη λογομαχία, παντοίων πέρι προτάσεων ἀπορησάντων· εἰ χρὴ τὸ πᾶν ἓν ἢ πολλὰ ἡγεῖσθαι καὶ εἰ ἕνα τὸν κόσμον ἢ πλείους· καὶ εἴτε ἔμψυχος οὗτος καὶ προνοίᾳ τυγχάνει θεοῦ διοικούμενος εἴτε καὶ τἀναντία· καὶ εἰ ἄφθαρτος ἢ φθαρτός· καὶ πόθεν τρέφεται· καὶ ἀπὸ ποίου ἤρξατο ὁ θεὸς κοσμοποιεῖν· περί τε τῆς τάξεως τοῦ κόσμου· καὶ τίς ἡ αἰτία τοῦ αὐτὸν ἐγκλιθῆναι· περί τε τοῦ ἐκτὸς τῆς τοῦ κόσμου περιφερείας· καὶ τίνα τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ τοῦ κόσμου· περί τε οὐρανοῦ· καὶ πρὸς ἅπασι τούτοις περὶ δαιμόνων καὶ ἡρώων· περί τε ὕλης καὶ περὶ ἰδεῶν· καὶ περὶ τῆς τοῦ παντὸς τάξεως· ἔτι μὴν περὶ τῆς τῶν ἄστρων φορᾶς τε καὶ κινήσεως· καὶ πρὸς τούτοις ὁπόθεν φωτίζονται οἱ ἀστέρες· καὶ περὶ τῶν καλουμένων Διοσκούρων· περί τε ἐκλείψεως ἡλίου καὶ σελήνης· καὶ περὶ ἐμφάσεως αὐτῆς καὶ διὰ τί γεώδης φαίνεται·
This, being made pneumatic by its motion and encompassing the stars, carried them around and kept their revolution aloft. Then from the subsiding parts earth was generated, and from the parts that were raised up, heaven, fire, and air. And with much matter still contained in the earth, as this was compacted by the blows from bodies and the rays from the stars, all its fine-grained structure was compressed and generated the liquid nature. This, being in a fluid state, was carried down into the hollow places capable of receiving and containing it; or else the water, settling by itself, hollowed out the places beneath it. Such is their marvelous cosmogony. Connected with these matters is a great deal of other wordy disputation, raising difficulties about all sorts of propositions: whether the whole is to be considered one or many, and whether the cosmos is one or many; and whether it is ensouled and governed by divine providence, or the opposite; and whether it is indestructible or destructible; and from what it is nourished; and from what starting point the god began to make the cosmos; and concerning the order of the cosmos; and what the cause is of its inclination; and concerning what is outside the circumference of the cosmos; and what are the right and left sides of the cosmos; and concerning heaven; and, in addition to all these, concerning daimons and heroes; and concerning matter and concerning ideas; and concerning the ordering of the whole; and further, concerning the motion and movement of the stars; and, in addition, from what source the stars are illuminated; and concerning the so-called Dioscuri; and concerning the eclipse of the sun and moon; and concerning its phase and why it appears earthy.
καὶ περὶ τῶν ἀποστημάτων αὐτῆς· καὶ ἔτι περὶ ἐνιαυτῶν. ταῦτα δὲ πάντα διὰ μυρίων τοῖς περὶ ὧν ὁ λόγος κατεσκευασμένα ἐπειδὴ τεμὼν ὁ Πλούταρχος ἐν ὀλίγοις συνεῖλεν, ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ὁμοῦ συναγαγὼν τὰς ἁπάντων ἀποφάσεις καὶ τὰς διαφωνίας αὐτῶν, ἡγοῦμαι καὶ ἡμῖν οὐκ ἄχρηστα γενήσεσθαι παρατεθέντα εἰς τὴν εὔλογον αὐτῶν παραίτησιν. ὅτε γὰρ αὐτοὶ πρὸς σφᾶς αὐτοὺς ἐναντίοι κατὰ διάμετρον ἔστησαν μάχας τε καὶ πολέμους, πλέον δὲ οὐδὲν καθ' ἑαυτῶν ἐξῆψαν, τὰ τοῦ πέλας ἕκαστοι φιλοτιμίᾳ λόγων ἀπελέγξαντες, πῶς οὐκ ἂν εἰκότως ἡμῖν ἀσφαλῆ τὴν περὶ τούτων ἐποχὴν γεγονέναι πᾶς ὁστισοῦν ὁμολογήσειε; θήσω δὲ ἑξῆς τοῖς εἰρημένοις ὅσα καὶ περὶ τῶν προσγειοτέρων ἐπηπόρησαν, περὶ γῆς σχήματος καὶ περὶ θέσεως καὶ ἐγκλίσεως αὐτῆς καὶ ἔτι περὶ θαλάσσης, ὡς ἂν εἰδείης ὅτι μὴ περὶ μόνων τῶν μετεώρων καὶ μεταρσίων οἱ γενναῖοι διέστησαν, ἀλλ' ὅτι καὶ ἐν τοῖς περιγείοις διαπεφωνήκασιν. ἵνα δὲ τῶν σοφῶν ἔτι τὴν σοφίαν ἀποθαυμάσῃς, προσθήσω καὶ ὅσα περὶ ψυχῆς καὶ τοῦ ἐν αὑτοῖς ἡγεμονικοῦ διεμαχέσαντο, οὐδὲ σφᾶς αὐτοὺς ἐπιγνῶναι οἵας εἶεν φύσεως δεδυνημένοι. ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἀνίωμεν ἐπὶ τὰ πρῶτα τῶν εἰρημένων.
and about its distances; and further about years. All these things, having been constructed through countless arguments concerning the subjects under discussion, since Plutarch, cutting them short, compressed them into a few words, gathering together into one the opinions of all and their disagreements, I think it will not be useless for us to set them forth for their reasonable dismissal. For when they themselves have set themselves in opposition diametrically, and have kindled battles and wars against each other, but have accomplished nothing more against themselves, each having refuted the arguments of the other with ambitious words, how would not everyone agree that it is reasonable for us to have become secure in our suspension of judgment concerning these matters? I will set down next to what has been said as many things as they have questioned concerning the more terrestrial matters, concerning the shape of the earth and its position and inclination, and further concerning the sea, so that you may know that the noble men disagreed not only about the lofty and celestial things, but also that they have been in disagreement concerning the terrestrial things. And in order that you may still admire the wisdom of the wise, I will add also as many things as they have debated concerning the soul and the ruling principle within themselves, not having been able to recognize even themselves, of what nature they are. But let us proceed to the first of the things mentioned.
λγʹ. ΕΙ ΕΝ ΤΟ ΠΑΝ «Οἱ μὲν οὖν ἀπὸ τῆς Στοᾶς ἕνα κόσμον ἀπεφήναντο, ὃν δὴ καὶ τὸ πᾶν ἔφασαν εἶναι καὶ τὰ σωματικά. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δὲ κόσμον μὲν ἕνα, οὐ μέντοι τὸ πᾶν εἶναι τὸν κόσμον, ἀλλ' ὀλίγον τι τοῦ παντὸς μέρος, τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν ἀργὴν ὕλην. Πλάτων δὲ τεκμαίρεται τὸ δοκοῦν, ὅτι εἷς ὁ κόσμος καὶ ἓν τὸ πᾶν, ἐκ τριῶν· ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἔσεσθαι τέλειον, ἐὰν μὴ πάντα ἐμπεριέχῃ· ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἔσεσθαι ὅμοιον τῷ παραδείγματι, ἐὰν μὴ μονογενὴς ᾖ· ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἔσεσθαι ἄφθαρτον, ἐάν τι ἐξωτέρω αὐτοῦ ᾖ. πρὸς δὲ τὸν Πλάτωνα λεκτέον ὅτι οὐ τέλειος ὁ κόσμος, οὐδὲ γὰρ τὰ πάντα περιέχει, καὶ πολλὰ παραδείγματά ἐστιν ὥσπερ ἐπ' ἀνδριάντων καὶ οἰκιῶν καὶ ζωγραφιῶν· πῶς δὲ εἶπεν· «Ἔξωθέν τι αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἔστι, περιδινεῖσθαι γὰρ οὐκ ἐδύνατο»; ἄφθαρτος δὲ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲ δύναται εἶναι, γενητὸς ὤν. Μητρόδωρος δέ φησιν ἄτοπον εἶναι ἐν μεγάλῳ πεδίῳ ἕνα στάχυν γεννηθῆναι καὶ ἕνα κόσμον ἐν τῷ ἀπείρῳ. ὅτι δὲ ἄπειρος κατὰ τὸ πλῆθος, δῆλον ἐκ τοῦ ἄπειρα τὰ αἴτια εἶναι. εἰ γὰρ ὁ μὲν κόσμος πεπερασμένος, τὰ δὲ αἴτια πάντα ἄπειρα, ἐξ ὧν ὁ κόσμος γέγονεν, ἀνάγκη ἀπείρους εἶναι. ὅπου γὰρ τὰ πάντα αἴτια, ἐκεῖ καὶ ἀποτελέσματα. αἴτια δὲ ἤτοι αἱ ἄτομοι ἢ τὰ στοιχεῖα.
33. Whether the All is One. "Now the Stoics declared that there is one cosmos, which they said is also the All and the corporeal. Empedocles, however, said that the cosmos is one, but that the cosmos is not the All, but rather a small part of the All, the rest being inert matter. Plato infers his opinion that the cosmos is one and the All is one from three considerations: from the fact that it would not be perfect unless it contained everything; from the fact that it would not be like the model unless it were only-begotten; from the fact that it would not be indestructible if anything existed outside it. But against Plato it must be said that the cosmos is not perfect, for it does not contain all things, and there are many models, as in the case of statues, houses, and paintings. And what does he mean by saying, 'Nothing exists outside it, for it could not revolve'? It is not indestructible, nor can it be, since it is generated. Metrodorus says it is absurd that in a large plain a single ear of grain should be produced, and a single cosmos in the infinite. And that it is infinite in number is clear from the fact that the causes are infinite. For if the cosmos is finite, but all the causes from which the cosmos came to be are infinite, then necessarily there are infinite cosmoi. For where all the causes are, there also are the results. And the causes are either atoms or the elements.
λδʹ. ΕΙ ΕΜΨΥΧΟΣ Ο ΚΟΣΜΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΡΟΝΟΙΑΙ ΔΙΟΙΚΟΥΜΕΝΟΣ
Δημόκριτος καὶ Ἐπίκουρος καὶ ὅσοι τὰ ἄτομα εἰσηγοῦνται καὶ τὸ κενόν, οὔτ' ἔμψυχον οὔτε προνοίᾳ διοικεῖσθαι, φύσει δέ τινι ἀλόγῳ. Ἀριστοτέλης οὔτ' ἔμψυχον ὅλον δι' ὅλων οὔτε λογικὸν οὔτε νοερὸν οὔτε προνοίᾳ διοικούμενον. τὰ μὲν γὰρ οὐράνια τούτων πάντων κοινωνεῖν–σφαίρας γὰρ περιέχειν ἐμψύχους καὶ ζωτικάς– τὰ δὲ περίγεια μηδενὸς αὐτῶν· τῆς δὲ εὐταξίας κατὰ συμβεβηκός, οὐ προηγουμένως μετέχειν. λεʹ. ΕΙ ΑΦΘΑΡΤΟΣ Ο ΚΟΣΜΟΣ Πυθαγόρας καὶ Πλάτων καὶ οἱ Στωϊκοὶ καὶ γενητὸν ὑπὸ θεοῦ τὸν κόσμον καὶ φθαρτὸν μέν, ὅσον ἐπὶ τῇ φύσει–αἰσθητὸν γὰρ εἶναι, διότι σωματικόν–οὐ μὴν φθαρησόμενόν γε, προνοίᾳ καὶ συνοχῇ θεοῦ. Ἐπίκουρος φθαρτόν, ὅτι γενητόν, ὡς ζῷον, ὡς φυτόν. Ξενοφάνης ἀγένητον καὶ ἀΐδιον καὶ ἄφθαρτον τὸν κόσμον. Ἀριστοτέλης τὸ ὑπὸ τὴν σελήνην τοῦ κόσμου μέρος παθητόν, ἐν ᾧ καὶ τὰ περίγεια κηραίνεται.
λ ʹ. ΠΟΘΕΝ ΤΡΕΦΕΤΑΙ Ο ΚΟΣΜΟΣ Ἀριστοτέλης, εἰ τρέφεται ὁ κόσμος, καὶ φθαρήσεται· ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδεμιᾶς ἐπιδέεται τροφῆς· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἀΐδιος. Πλάτων αὐτὸν αὑτῷ τὸν κόσμον ἐκ τοῦ φθίνοντος κατὰ μεταβολὴν τὸ τρέφον παρέχεσθαι. Φιλόλαος διττὴν εἶναι τὴν φθοράν, τοτὲ μὲν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ πυρὸς ῥυέντος, τοτὲ δὲ ἐξ ὕδατος σεληνιακοῦ περιστροφῇ τοῦ ἀέρος ἀποχυθέντος· καὶ τούτων εἶναι τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις τροφὰς τοῦ κόσμου.
34. Whether the Cosmos is Animate and Governed by Providence
Democritus and Epicurus, and all who introduce atoms and the void, hold that it is neither animate nor governed by providence, but by some irrational nature. Aristotle holds that it is neither wholly animate throughout, nor rational, nor intelligent, nor governed by providence. For the heavenly bodies partake of all these—for they contain animate and vital spheres—but the terrestrial region partakes of none of them; and it participates in good order only incidentally, not primarily.
35. Whether the Cosmos is Indestructible
Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics hold that the cosmos is both generated by God and destructible, so far as its nature is concerned—for it is perceptible, because it is corporeal—but that it will not be destroyed, by the providence and coherence of God. Epicurus holds it destructible, because it is generated, like an animal, like a plant. Xenophanes holds the cosmos ungenerated, eternal, and indestructible. Aristotle holds that the part of the cosmos below the moon is passible, in which the terrestrial things also suffer decay.
36. Whence the Cosmos is Nourished
Aristotle: if the cosmos is nourished, it will also be destroyed; but in fact it requires no nourishment; therefore it is also eternal. Plato: the cosmos provides nourishment for itself from what perishes by change. Philolaus: destruction is twofold, sometimes from fire flowing from the heaven, sometimes from lunar water poured forth by the revolution of the air; and the exhalations of these are the nourishment of the cosmos.
λζʹ. ΑΠΟ ΠΟΙΟΥ ΠΡΩΤΟΥ ΗΡΞΑΤΟ Ο ΘΕΟΣ ΚΟΣΜΟΠΟΙΕΙΝ Οἱ φυσικοὶ ἀπὸ γῆς ἄρξασθαι τὴν γένεσιν τοῦ κόσμου, καθάπερ ἀπὸ κέντρου· ἀρχὴ δὲ σφαίρας τὸ κέντρον. Πυθαγόρας ἀπὸ πυρὸς καὶ τοῦ πέμπτου στοιχείου. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸν μὲν αἰθέρα πρῶτον διακριθῆναι, δεύτερον δὲ τὸ πῦρ, ἐφ' ᾧ τὴν γῆν, ἐξ ἧς ἄγαν περισφιγγομένης τῇ ῥύμῃ τῆς σφαίρας ἀναβλύ σαι τὸ ὕδωρ, ἐξ οὗ θυμιαθῆναι τὸν ἀέρα· καὶ γενέσθαι τὸν μὲν οὐρανὸν ἐκ τοῦ αἰθέρος, τὸν δὲ ἥλιον ἐκ τοῦ πυρός· εἱληθῆναι δὲ ἐκ τῶν ἄλλων τὰ περίγεια. Πλάτων ὁρατὸν τὸν κόσμον γεγονέναι πρὸς παράδειγμα τοῦ νοητοῦ κόσμου· τοῦ δὲ ὁρατοῦ προτέραν μὲν τὴν ψυχήν, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τὸ σωματοειδές, ἐκ πυρὸς μὲν καὶ γῆς πρώτων, ὕδατος δὲ καὶ ἀέρος δευτέρων. Πυθαγόρας πέντε σχημάτων ὄντων στερεῶν, ἅπερ καλεῖται καὶ μαθηματικά, ἐκ μὲν τοῦ κύβου φησὶ γεγονέναι τὴν γῆν, ἐκ δὲ τῆς πυραμίδος τὸ πῦρ, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ ὀκταέδρου τὸν ἀέρα, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ εἰκοσαέδρου τὸ ὕδωρ, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ δωδεκαέδρου τὴν τοῦ παντὸς σφαῖραν. Πλάτων δὲ καὶ ἐν τούτοις πυθαγορίζει.
37. From What First Did God Begin to Make the Cosmos? The natural philosophers held that the generation of the cosmos began from earth, as from a center; for the center is the beginning of a sphere. Pythagoras held that it began from fire and the fifth element. Empedocles held that the aether was first separated, then fire, then earth, from which, as the sphere's rotation tightly compressed it, water gushed forth, and from this air was vaporized; and the heaven came from the aether, the sun from fire, and the terrestrial regions were coiled from the remaining elements. Plato held that the visible cosmos came into being as a likeness of the intelligible cosmos; and of the visible cosmos, the soul was prior, and after this the corporeal, from fire and earth as first elements, and water and air as second. Pythagoras held that, there being five solid figures, which are also called mathematical, from the cube came earth, from the pyramid fire, from the octahedron air, from the icosahedron water, and from the dodecahedron the sphere of the universe. Plato in these matters also follows Pythagoras.
ληʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΑΞΕΩΣ ΤΟΥ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ Παρμενίδης στεφάνας εἶναι περιπεπλεγμένας ἐπαλλήλους, τὴν μὲν ἐκ τοῦ ἀραιοῦ, τὴν δὲ ἐκ τοῦ πυκνοῦ, μικτὰς δὲ ἄλλας ἐκ φωτὸς καὶ σκότους μεταξὺ τούτων, καὶ τὸ περιέχον δὲ πάσας τοίχου δίκην στερεὸν ὑπάρχον. Λεύκιππος καὶ Δημόκριτος χιτῶνα κυκλῷ καὶ ὑμένα περιτείνουσι τῷ κόσμῳ. Ἐπίκουρος ἐνίων μὲν κόσμων ἀραιὸν τὸ πέρας, ἔνια δὲ πυκνά· καὶ τούτων τὰ μέν τινα κινούμενα, τὰ δὲ ἀκίνητα. Πλάτων πῦρ πρῶτον, εἶτα αἰθέρα, μεθ' ὃν ἀέρα, ἐφ' ᾧ ὕδωρ, τελευταίαν
δὲ γῆν· ἐνίοτε δὲ τὸν αἰθέρα συνάπτει τῷ πυρί. Ἀριστοτέλης πρῶτον μὲν αἰθέρα ἀπαθῆ, πέμπτον δὴ σῶμα· μεθ' ὃν παθητὰ πῦρ, ἀέρα, ὕδωρ, τελευταίαν δὲ γῆν. τούτων δὲ τοῖς μὲν οὐρανίοις ἀποδεδόσθαι τὴν κυκλικὴν κίνησιν, τῶν δ' ὑπ' ἐκεῖνα τεταγμένων τοῖς μὲν κούφοις τὴν ἄνω, τοῖς δὲ βαρέσι τὴν κάτω. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς μὴ διὰ παντὸς ἑστῶτας εἶναι μηδὲ ὡρισμένους τοὺς τόπους τῶν στοιχείων, ἀλλὰ πάντας τουτοὺς ἀλλήλων μεταλαμβάνειν.
38. On the Order of the Cosmos. Parmenides holds that there are crowns intertwined one with another, one composed of the rare, another of the dense, and others mixed from light and darkness between these, and that which surrounds all is solid like a wall. Leucippus and Democritus stretch a tunic and a membrane around the cosmos in a circle. Epicurus holds that the limit of some worlds is rare, of others dense; and of these some are in motion, others motionless. Plato places fire first, then aether, after that air, then water, and earth last; sometimes he joins aether with fire. Aristotle places first aether, impassible, the fifth body; after that the passible fire, air, water, and earth last. Of these, circular motion is assigned to the heavenly bodies, while of those arranged beneath them, upward motion is assigned to the light, downward to the heavy. Empedocles holds that the places of the elements are not fixed throughout nor defined, but that all of them partake of one another.
λθʹ. ΤΙΣ Η ΑΙΤΙΑ ΤΟΥ ΤΟΝ ΚΟΣΜΟΝ ΕΓΚΛΙΘΗΝΑΙ Διογένης, Ἀναξαγόρας μετὰ τὸ συστῆναι τὸν κόσμον καὶ τὰ ζῷα ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἐξαγαγεῖν ἐγκλιθῆναί πως τὸν κόσμον ἐκ τοῦ αὐτομάτου εἰς τὸ μεσημβρινὸν αὐτοῦ μέρος, ἴσως ὑπὸ προνοίας, ἵνα τὰ μὲν ἀοίκητα γένηται, τὰ δὲ οἰκητὰ μέρη τοῦ κόσμου, κατὰ ἐκπύρωσιν καὶ εὐκρασίαν καὶ ψῦξιν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τοῦ ἀέρος εἴξαντος τῇ τοῦ ἡλίου ὁρμῇ ἐπικλιθῆναι τὰς ἄρκτους καὶ τὰ βόρεια ὑψωθῆναι, τὰ δὲ νότια ταπεινωθῆναι, καθὸ καὶ τὸν ὅλον κόσμον.
μʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΟΥ ΕΚΤΟΣ Οἱ μὲν ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου ἐκτὸς εἶναι τοῦ κόσμου κενόν, εἰς ὃ ἀναπνεῖ ὁ κόσμος καὶ ἐξ οὗ. Οἱ δὲ Στωϊκοί, εἰς ὃ καὶ τῇ ἐκπυρώσει ἀναλύεται, ἄπειρον. Ποσειδώνιος οὐκ ἄπειρον, ἀλλ' ὅσον αὔταρκες εἰς τὴν διάβασιν. Πλάτων, Ἀριστοτέλης μήτ' ἐκτὸς τοῦ κόσμου διάκενον εἶναι μήτ' ἐντός.
μαʹ. ΤΙΝΑ ΔΕΞΙΑ ΤΟΥ ΚΟΣΜΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΤΙΝΑ ΑΡΙΣΤΕΡΑ Πυθαγόρας, Πλάτων, Ἀριστοτέλης δεξιὰ τοῦ κόσμου τὰ ἀνατολικὰ μέρη, ἀφ' ὧν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως, ἀριστερὰ δὲ τὰ δυτικά. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δεξιὰ μὲν τὰ κατὰ τὸν θερινὸν τροπικόν, ἀριστερὰ δὲ τὰ κατὰ τὸν χειμερινόν.
39. What Is the Cause of the Inclination of the Cosmos. Diogenes and Anaxagoras hold that after the cosmos was constituted and the animals were brought forth from the earth, the cosmos was somehow inclined of its own accord toward its southern part, perhaps by providence, so that some parts of the cosmos become uninhabitable and others habitable, according to conflagration, good mixture, and cooling. Empedocles holds that when the air yielded to the rush of the sun, the Bears and the northern regions were inclined upward, and the southern regions were lowered, and thus the whole cosmos.
40. On the Outside. The followers of Pythagoras hold that there is a void outside the cosmos, into which the cosmos breathes and from which it breathes. The Stoics hold that it is infinite, into which the cosmos is also resolved at the conflagration. Posidonius holds that it is not infinite, but sufficient for passage. Plato and Aristotle hold that there is neither a void outside the cosmos nor within it.
41. Which Are the Right and Which the Left of the Cosmos. Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle hold that the right parts of the cosmos are the eastern parts, from which the beginning of motion comes, and the left are the western parts. Empedocles holds that the right are the parts along the summer tropic, and the left are those along the winter tropic.
μβʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΟΥΡΑΝΟΥ Ἀναξιμένης τὴν περιφορὰν τῆς ἔξω ζώνης εἶναι. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς στερέμνιον εἶναι τὸν οὐρανόν, ἐξ ἀέρος συμπαγέντος ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς κρυσταλλοειδῶς, τὸ πυρῶδες καὶ ἀερῶδες ἐν ἑκατέρῳ τῶν ἡμισφαιρίων περιέχοντα.
μγʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΔΑΙΜΟΝΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΗΡΩΩΝ Παρακειμένως δὲ τῷ περὶ θεῶν λόγῳ τὸν περὶ δαιμόνων καὶ ἡρώων ἱστορητέον. Θαλῆς, Πυθαγόρας, Πλάτων, οἱ Στωϊκοὶ δαίμονας ὑπάρχειν οὐσίας ψυχικάς· εἶναι δὲ καὶ ἥρωας τὰς κεχωρισμένας ψυχὰς τῶν σωμάτων, καὶ ἀγαθοὺς μὲν τὰς ἀγαθάς, κακοὺς δὲ τὰς φαύλας. Ἐπίκουρος δὲ οὐδὲν τούτων ἐγκρίνει.
μδʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΥΛΗΣ
Ὕλη ἐστὶ τὸ ὑποκείμενον γενέσει καὶ φθορᾷ καὶ ταῖς ἄλλαις μεταβολαῖς. Οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω καὶ Πυθαγόρα καὶ οἱ Στωϊκοὶ τρεπτὴν καὶ ἀλλοιωτὴν καὶ ῥευστὴν ὅλην δι' ὅλων τὴν ὕλην. Οἱ ἀπὸ Δημοκρίτου ἀπαθῆ τὰ πρῶτα, τὴν ἄτομον καὶ τὸ κενὸν τὸ ἀσώματον. Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ Πλάτων τὴν ὕλην σωματοειδῆ, ἄμορφον, ἀνείδεον, ἀσχημάτιστον, ἄποιον ὅσον ἐπὶ τῇ ἰδίᾳ φύσει, δεξαμενὴν δὲ τῶν εἰδῶν οἷον τιθήνην καὶ ἐκμαγεῖον καὶ μητέρα γενέσθαι. οἱ δὲ ὕδωρ λέγοντες ἢ πῦρ ἢ ἀέρα ἢ γῆν τὴν ὕλην, οὐκέτι ἄμορφον αὐτὴν λέγουσιν, ἀλλὰ σῶμα· οἱ δὲ τὰ ἀμερῆ καὶ τὰς ἀτόμους, ἄμορφον.
42. On the Heaven. Anaximenes holds that the revolution of the outer zone is heaven. Empedocles holds that heaven is solid, compacted from air by fire in a crystalline manner, containing the fiery and airy element in each of the two hemispheres.
43. On Daemons and Heroes. In connection with the discourse on gods, one must also investigate the discourse on daemons and heroes. Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics hold that daemons are psychic substances; and that heroes are the souls separated from bodies, the good ones being good, the bad ones being base. Epicurus, however, approves none of these.
44. On Matter. Matter is that which underlies generation and destruction and the other changes. The followers of Thales and Pythagoras and the Stoics hold that matter is changeable, alterable, and fluid throughout. The followers of Democritus hold that the primary things are impassive: the atom and the void, which is incorporeal. Aristotle and Plato hold that matter is corporeal, formless, shapeless, figureless, and without quality in its own nature, but becomes a receptacle of forms, like a nurse, a mold, and a mother. Those who say that water or fire or air or earth is matter no longer call it formless, but a body; and those who say that the indivisibles and the atoms are matter call it formless.
μεʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΙΔΕΑΣ Ἰδέα δέ ἐστιν οὐσία ἀσώματος, αὐτὴ μὲν ὑφεστῶσα καὶ καθ' αὑτήν, εἰκονίζουσα δὲ τὰς ἀμόρφους ὕλας καὶ αἰτία γιγνομένη τῆς τούτων δείξεως. Σωκράτης καὶ Πλάτων χωριστὰς τῆς ὕλης δείξεις τὰς δὲ ἰδέας ἐν τοῖς νοήμασι καὶ ταῖς φαντασίαις τοῦ θεοῦ, τουτέστι τοῦ νοῦ. Ἀριστοτέλης εἴδη μὲν ἀπέλιπε καὶ ἰδέας, οὐ μὴν κεχωρισμένας τῆς ὕλης, ἔξω γεγονὼς τοῦ ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ. Οἱ ἀπὸ Ζήνωνος Στωϊκοὶ ἐννοήματα ἡμέτερα τὰς ἰδέας.
μ ʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΑΞΕΩΣ ΑΣΤΕΡΩΝ Ξενοκράτης κατὰ μίαν ἐπιφάνειαν οἴεται κινεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας. Οἱ ἄλλοι Στωϊκοὶ πρὸ τῶν ἑτέρων τοὺς ἑτέρους, ἐν ὕψει καὶ βάθει. Δημόκριτος τὰ μὲν ἀπλανῆ πρῶτον, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τοὺς πλανήτας, ἐφ' οἷς ἥλιον, Φωσφόρον, σελήνην. Πλάτων μετὰ τὴν τῶν ἀπλανῶν θέσιν Φαίνωνα λεγόμενον, τὸν τοῦ Κρόνου· δεύτερον Φαέθοντα, τὸν τοῦ Διός· τρίτον Πυρόεντα, τὸν τοῦ Ἄρεως· τέταρτον Ἑωσφόρον, τὸν τῆς Ἀφροδίτης· πέμπτον Στίλβοντα, τὸν τοῦ Ἑρμοῦ·ἕκτον ἥλιον· ἕβδομον σελήνην. Τῶν μαθηματικῶν τινὲς μὲν ὡς Πλάτων, τινὲς δὲ μέσον πάντων τὸν ἥλιον. Ἀναξίμανδρος καὶ Μητρόδωρος ὁ Χῖος καὶ Κράτης ἀνωτάτω μὲν πάντων τὸν ἥλιον τετάχθαι· μετ' αὐτὸν τὴν σελήνην, ὑπὸ δὲ αὐτοῖς τὰ ἀπλανῆ τῶν ἄστρων καὶ τοὺς πλανήτας.
45. On the Idea. An idea is an incorporeal substance, itself subsisting and in itself, imaging the formless matters and becoming the cause of their manifestation. Socrates and Plato hold that the ideas are separable from matter, being manifestations in the thoughts and phantasies of God, that is, of the Intellect. Aristotle left behind forms and ideas, but not separated from matter, having departed from the teaching of God. The Stoics, followers of Zeno, hold that the ideas are our own conceptions.
46. On the Order of the Stars. Xenocrates thinks that the stars move on a single surface. The other Stoics think that some stars are before others, in height and depth. Democritus holds that the fixed stars are first, then the planets, after them the sun, Phosphorus, and the moon. Plato holds that after the position of the fixed stars, first is the one called Phaenon, that of Cronus; second, Phaethon, that of Zeus; third, Pyroeis, that of Ares; fourth, Heosphorus, that of Aphrodite; fifth, Stilbon, that of Hermes; sixth, the sun; seventh, the moon. Some of the mathematicians hold as Plato does, but some hold the sun in the middle of all. Anaximander and Metrodorus of Chios and Crates hold that the sun is placed highest of all, after it the moon, and below them the fixed stars and the planets.
μζʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΗΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΣΤΡΩΝ ΦΟΡΑΣ ΚΑΙ ΚΙΝΗΣΕΩΣ Ἀναξαγόρας, Δημόκριτος, Κλεάνθης ἀπ' ἀνατολῶν ἐπὶ δυσμὰς φέρεσθαι πάντας τοὺς ἀστέρας. Ἀλκμαίων καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ τοὺς πλανήτας τοῖς ἀπλανέσιν ἀπὸ δυσμῶν ἐπ' ἀνατολὰς ἀντιφέρεσθαι. Ἀναξίμανδρος ὑπὸ τῶν κύκλων καὶ τῶν σφαιρῶν, ἐφ' ὧν ἕκαστος βέβηκε, φέρεσθαι. Ἀναξιμένης οὐχ ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν, περὶ αὐτὴν δὲ στρέφεσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ ἰσοδρόμους εἶναι τὸν ἥλιον, τὸν Φωσφόρον, τὸν Στίλβοντα.
μηʹ. ΠΟΘΕΝ ΦΩΤΙΖΟΝΤΑΙ ΟΙ ΑΣΤΕΡΕΣ Μητρόδωρος ἅπαντας τοὺς ἀπλανεῖς ἀστέρας ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου καταλάμπεσθαι.
Ἡράκλειτος, οἱ Στωϊκοὶ τρέφεσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας ἐκ τῆς ἐπιγείου ἀναθυμιάσεως. Ἀριστοτέλης μὴ δεῖσθαι τὰ οὐράνια τροφῆς· οὐ γὰρ φθαρτά, ἀλλὰ ἀΐδια. Πλάτων κοινῶς τὸν κόσμον ὅλον καὶ τὰ ἄστρα ἐξ αὐτοῦ τρέφεσθαι.
μθʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΩΝ ΚΑΛΟΥΜΕΝΩΝ ΔΙΟΣΚΟΥΡΩΝ Ξενοφάνης τοὺς ἐπὶ τῶν πλοίων φαινομένους οἷον ἀστέρας νεφέλια εἶναι κατὰ τὴν ποιὰν κίνησιν παραλάμποντα. Μητρόδωρος τῶν ὁρώντων ὀφθαλμῶν μετὰ δέους καὶ καταπλήξεως εἶναι στιλβηδόνας.
47. On the Motion and Movement of the Stars. Anaxagoras, Democritus, and Cleanthes hold that all the stars are borne from east to west. Alcmaeon and the mathematicians hold that the planets move in opposition to the fixed stars from west to east. Anaximander holds that they are borne by the circles and spheres upon which each is set. Anaximenes holds that the stars revolve not under the earth but around it. Plato and the mathematicians hold that the sun, the Morning Star, and the Star of Hermes are of equal speed.
48. Whence the Stars Are Illuminated. Metrodorus holds that all the fixed stars are illuminated by the sun.
Heraclitus and the Stoics hold that the stars are nourished by the exhalation from the earth. Aristotle holds that the heavenly bodies require no nourishment, for they are not perishable but eternal. Plato holds that the whole cosmos and the stars are nourished from it in common.
49. On the So-Called Dioscuri. Xenophanes holds that the lights appearing on ships, like stars, are clouds that shine according to a certain motion. Metrodorus holds that they are flashes from the eyes of the beholders, arising from fear and astonishment.
νʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΕΚΛΕΙΨΕΩΣ ΗΛΙΟΥ Θαλῆς πρῶτος ἔφη ἐκλείπειν τὸν ἥλιον τῆς σελήνης αὐτὸν ὑπερχομένης κατὰ κάθετον, οὔσης φύσει γεώδους· βλέπεσθαι δὲ τοῦτο κατοπτρικῶς, ὑποτιθεμένην τῷ δίσκῳ. Ἀναξίμανδρος τοῦ στομίου τῆς τοῦ πυρὸς διεκπνοῆς ἀποκλειομένου. Ἡράκλειτος κατὰ τὴν τοῦ σκαφοειδοῦς στροφήν, ὥστε τὸ μὲν κοῖλον ἄνω γίνεσθαι, τὸ δὲ κυρτὸν κάτω πρὸς τὴν ἡμετέραν ὄψιν. Ξενοφάνης κατὰ σβέσιν· ἕτερον δὲ πάλιν πρὸς ταῖς ἀνατολαῖς γίνεσθαι. παριστόρηκε δὲ καὶ ἔκλειψιν ἡλίου ἐφ' ὅλον τὸν μῆνα καὶ πάλιν ἔκλειψιν ἐντελῆ, ὥστε τὴν ἡμέραν νύκτα φανῆναι. Ἔνιοι πύκνωμα τῶν ἀοράτων ἐπερχομένων τῷ δίσκῳ νεφῶν. Ἀρίσταρχος τὸν ἥλιον ἵστησι μετὰ τῶν ἀπλανῶν, τὴν δὲ σελήνην κινεῖ περὶ τὸν ἡλιακὸν κύκλον καὶ κατὰ ταύτας τὰς ἐγκλίσεις σκιάζεσθαι τὸν δίσκον. Ξενοφάνης πολλοὺς ἡλίους εἶναι καὶ σελήνας, κατὰ κλίματα τῆς γῆς καὶ ἀποτομὰς καὶ ζώνας· κατά τινα δὲ καιρὸν ἐμπίπτειν τὸν δίσκον εἴς τινα ἀποτομὴν τῆς γῆς οὐκ οἰκουμένην ὑφ' ἡμῶν καὶ οὕτως ὥσπερ κενεμβατοῦντος ἔκλειψιν ὑποφαίνειν. ὁ δ' αὐτὸς τὸν ἥλιον μὲν εἰς ἄπειρον προϊέναι, δοκεῖν δὲ κυκλεῖσθαι διὰ τὴν ἀπόστασιν.
50. On the Eclipse of the Sun. Thales first said that the sun is eclipsed when the moon passes directly beneath it, the moon being earthy by nature; and that this is seen by reflection, the moon being placed under the disk. Anaximander said it is when the mouth of the fire's exhalation is blocked. Heraclitus said it is by the turning of the bowl-shaped object, so that the hollow part becomes upward and the convex part downward toward our vision. Xenophanes said it is by extinction; and another sun is again produced at the risings. He also recorded an eclipse of the sun lasting a whole month, and again a total eclipse, so that day appeared as night. Some say it is a condensation of invisible clouds coming over the disk. Aristarchus places the sun among the fixed stars, and moves the moon around the solar circle, and by these inclinations the disk is shadowed. Xenophanes said there are many suns and moons, according to the regions, sections, and zones of the earth; and at some time the disk falls into a section of the earth not inhabited by us, and thus, as if stepping into a void, it shows an eclipse. The same author said that the sun proceeds to infinity, but appears to circle because of the distance.
ναʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΕΚΛΕΙΨΕΩΣ ΣΕΛΗΝΗΣ Ἀναξίμανδρος τοῦ στομίου τοῦ περὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἐπιφραττομένου κατὰ τὴν πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἐπιστροφὴν τοῦ πυρώδους μέρους. Ἡράκλειτος κατὰ τὴν τοῦ σκαφοειδοῦς στροφήν. Τῶν Πυθαγορείων τινὲς ἀνταύγειαν καὶ ἐπίφραξιν τῆς γῆς ἢ τῆς ἀντίχθονος· οἱ δὲ νεώτεροι κατ' ἐπινέμησιν φωτὸς κατὰ μικρὸν ἐξαπτομένης τεταγμένως, ἕως ἂν τὴν τελείαν πανσέληνον ἀποδῷ, καὶ πάλιν ἀναλόγως μειουμένης μέχρι τῆς συνόδου, καθ' ἣν τελέως σβέννυται. Πλάτων, Ἀριστοτέλης, οἱ Στωϊκοὶ καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ συμφωνοῦσι τὰς μὲν μηνιαίους ἀποκρύψεις συνοδεύουσαν αὐτὴν ἡλίῳ καὶ συμπεριλαμπομένην ποιεῖσθαι· τὰς δὲ ἐκλείψεις, εἰς τὸ σκίασμα τῆς γῆς ἐμπίπτουσαν μεταξὺ ἀμφοτέρων τῶν ἀστέρων γινομένης, μᾶλλον δὲ τῆς σελήνης ἀντιφραττομένης.
νβʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΕΜΦΑΣΕΩΣ ΑΥΤΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΔΙΑ ΤΙ ΓΕΩΔΗΣ ΦΑΙΝΕΤΑΙ Οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι γεώδη φαίνεσθαι τὴν σελήνην διὰ τὸ περιοικεῖσθαι αὐτὴν καθάπερ τὴν παρ' ἡμῖν γῆν μείζοσι ζῴοις καὶ φυτοῖς καλλίοσιν. εἶναι γὰρ
51. On the Eclipse of the Moon. Anaximander says that the mouth of the wheel around the fiery part is blocked at its turning toward us. Heraclitus says that it is by the turning of the bowl-shaped body. Some of the Pythagoreans say it is by reflection and by the blocking of the earth or the counter-earth; but the more recent ones say it is by the gradual consumption of light, which is kindled in an orderly manner until it produces the complete full moon, and then diminishes proportionally until the conjunction, at which it is entirely extinguished. Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the mathematicians agree that the monthly concealments occur when the moon accompanies the sun and is illuminated together with it; but the eclipses occur when it falls into the shadow of the earth, which happens between both stars, or rather when the moon is blocked.
52. On Its Appearance and Why It Appears Earthy. The Pythagoreans say that the moon appears earthy because it is inhabited, just like our earth, by larger animals and more beautiful plants. For it is
πεντεκαιδεκαπλάσια τὰ ἐπ' αὐτῆς ζῷα, μηδὲν σωματικὸν ἀποκρίνοντα· καὶ τὴν ἡμέραν τοσαύτην τῷ μήκει. Ἀναξαγόρας ἀνωμαλότητα διὰ τοῦ συγκρίματος διὰ τὸ ψυχροειδὲς ἅμα καὶ γεῶδες· παραμεμῖχθαι γὰρ τῷ πυροειδεῖ τὸ ζοφῶδες, ὅθεν ψευδοφαῆ λέγεσθαι τὸν ἀστέρα. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ διὰ τὸ ἀερομιγὲς τῆς οὐσίας μὴ εἶναι αὐτῆς ἀκήρατον τὸ σύγκριμα.
νγʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΤΩΝ ΑΠΟΣΤΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΑΥΤΗΣ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς διπλάσιον ἀπέχειν τὴν σελήνην ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου ἤπερ ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς. Οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν μαθηματικῶν ὀκτωκαιδεκαπλάσιον. Ἐρατοσθένης τὸν ἥλιον ἀπέχειν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς σταδίων μυριάδας τετρακοσίας καὶ ὀκτακισμυρίας, τὴν δὲ σελήνην ἀπέχειν τῆς γῆς μυριάδας οηʹ σταδίων.
νδʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΕΝΙΑΥΤΩΝ Ἐνιαυτός ἐστι Κρόνου μὲν ἐνιαυτῶν περίοδος λʹ, Διὸς δὲ δώδεκα, Ἄρεως δυοῖν, ἡλίου δώδεκα μῆνες. οἱ δ' αὐτοὶ Ἑρμοῦ καὶ Ἀφροδίτης· ἰσόδρομοι γάρ. σελήνης δὲ ἡμέραι τριάκοντα· οὗτος γὰρ ὁ τέλειος μὴν ἀπὸ φάσεως εἰς σύνοδον. Τὸν δὲ μέγαν ἐνιαυτὸν οἱ μὲν ἐν τῇ ὀκταετηρίδι τίθενται, οἱ δὲ ἐν τῇ ἐννεακαιδεκαετηρίδι, οἱ δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἑξήκοντα ἑνὸς δέουσιν. Ἡράκλειτος ἐκ μυρίων ὀκτακισχιλίων ἡλιακῶν, Διογένης ἐκ πέντε καὶ ἑξήκοντα καὶ τριακοσίων ἐνιαυτῶν τοσούτων, ὅσων κατὰ Ἡράκλειτον ὁ ἐνιαυτός.» Καὶ περὶ μὲν τῶν οὐρανίων καὶ μεταρσίων τοσαῦτα τοῖς δεδηλωμένοις πρὸς ἀλλήλους διεστασίασται. θέα δὲ καὶ τὰ περὶ γῆς·
fifteen times the size of the animals on it, emitting nothing corporeal; and the day is of that length. Anaxagoras says there is irregularity due to the mixture, because of the cold-like and earthy element together; for the dark is mixed with the fiery, whence the star is said to be false-shining. The Stoics say that because of the air-mixed nature of its substance, its composition is not pure.
53. On Its Distances. Empedocles says the moon is twice as far from the sun as from the earth. The mathematicians say eighteen times as far. Eratosthenes says the sun is distant from the earth 4,080,000 stades, and the moon is distant from the earth 78,000 stades.
54. On Years. A year is: for Kronos a period of 30 years, for Zeus twelve, for Ares two, for the sun twelve months. The same for Hermes and Aphrodite, for they are isodromic. For the moon, thirty days; for this is the perfect month from phase to conjunction. The great year some place in the eight-year cycle, others in the nineteen-year cycle, others in the cycle of sixty lacking one. Heraclitus says from 10,800 solar years, Diogenes from 365 years of such number as Heraclitus’ year. And concerning the heavenly and aerial bodies, such are the disagreements among those who have been mentioned. But see also the matters concerning earth.
νεʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΓΗΣ «Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ ἀπ' αὐτοῦ μίαν εἶναι τὴν γῆν. Ἱκέτης ὁ Πυθαγόρειος δύο, αὐτὴν καὶ τὴν ἀντίχθονα. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ τὴν γῆν μίαν καὶ πεπερασμένην. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ τοῦ κατωτέρου μέρους εἰς ἄπειρον μέρος ἐρριζῶσθαι, ἐξ ἀέρος δὲ καὶ πυρὸς παγῆναι. Μητρόδωρος τὴν μὲν γῆν ὑπόστασιν εἶναι καὶ τρύγα τοῦ ὕδατος, τὸν δὲ ἥλιον τοῦ ἀέρος.
ν ʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΣΧΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΓΗΣ Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ Στωϊκοὶ σφαιροειδῆ τὴν γῆν. Ἀναξίμανδρος λίθῳ κίονι προσφερῆ τῶν ἐπὶ πέδων. Ἀναξιμένης τραπεζοειδῆ. Λεύκιππος τυμπανοειδῆ. Δημόκριτος δισκοειδῆ τῷ πλάτει, κοίλην δὲ τῷ μέσῳ.
νζʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΘΕΣΕΩΣ ΤΗΣ ΓΗΣ Οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω τὴν γῆν μέσην. Ξενοφάνης πρώτην, εἰς ἄπειρον γὰρ ἐρριζῶσθαι. Φιλόλαος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος τὸ μὲν πῦρ μέσον, τοῦτο γὰρ εἶναι τοῦ παντὸς ἑστίαν· δευτέραν δὲ τὴν ἀντίχθονα· τρίτην δὲ τὴν οἰκουμένην γῆν, ἐξ ἐναντίας δὲ κειμένην τε καὶ περιφερομένην τῇ ἀντίχθονι, παρ' ὃ καὶ μὴ ὁρᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν ἐν τῇδε
τοὺς ἐν ἐκείνῃ. Παρμενίδης πρῶτος ἀφώρισε τῆς γῆς τοὺς οἰκουμένους τόπους ὑπὸ ταῖς δυσὶ ζώναις ταῖς τροπικαῖς.
55. On the Earth: "Thales and his followers say the earth is one. Hicetas the Pythagorean says there are two, the earth itself and the counter-earth. The Stoics say the earth is one and finite. Xenophanes says it is rooted from its lower part into an infinite extent, and is solidified from air and fire. Metrodorus says the earth is the sediment and dregs of water, and the sun of air.
56. On the Shape of the Earth: Thales and the Stoics say the earth is spherical. Anaximander says it is like a stone column on a flat surface. Anaximenes says it is table-shaped. Leucippus says it is drum-shaped. Democritus says it is disc-shaped in breadth, and hollow in the middle.
57. On the Position of the Earth: The followers of Thales place the earth in the middle. Xenophanes says it is first, for it is rooted into the infinite. Philolaus the Pythagorean says fire is in the middle, for this is the hearth of the universe; second is the counter-earth; third is the inhabited earth, which lies opposite to and revolves with the counter-earth, for which reason it is not seen by those on the one from those on the other. Parmenides first defined the inhabited regions of the earth as lying under the two tropical zones.
νηʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΕΓΚΛΙΣΕΩΣ ΓΗΣ Οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι μένειν τὴν γῆν. Φιλόλαος δὲ ὁ Πυθαγόρειος κύκλῳ περιφέρεσθαι περὶ τὸ πῦρ κατὰ κύκλου λοξοῦ, ὁμοιοτρόπως ἡλίῳ καὶ σελήνῃ. Ἡρακλείδης ὁ Ποντικὸς καὶ Ἔκφαντος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος κινοῦσι μὲν τὴν γῆν, οὐ μὴν μεταβατικῶς, ἀλλὰ τρεπτικῶς, τροχοῦ δίκην ἐν ἄξονι στρεφομένην ἀπὸ δυσμῶν ἐπ' ἀνατολὰς περὶ τὸ ἴδιον αὐτῆς κέντρον. Δημόκριτος κατ' ἀρχὰς μὲν πλάζεσθαι τὴν γῆν διά τε σμικρότητα καὶ κουφότητα, πυκνωθεῖσαν δὲ τῷ χρόνῳ καὶ βαρυνθεῖσαν καταστῆναι.» Τούτων καὶ περὶ γῆς διαπεφωνημένων τοῖς γενναίοις ἄκουε καὶ τῶν περὶ θαλάσσης·
νθʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΗΣ ΠΩΣ ΣΥΝΕΣΤΗ ΚΑΙ ΠΩΣ ΕΣΤΙ ΠΙΚΡΑ «Ἀναξίμανδρος τὴν θάλασσάν φησιν εἶναι τῆς πρώτης ὑγρασίας λείψανον· ἧς τὸ μὲν πλεῖον μέρος ἀνεξήρανε τὸ πῦρ, τὸ δὲ ὑπολειφθὲν διὰ τὴν ἔκκαυσιν μετέβαλεν. Ἀναξαγόρας τοῦ κατ' ἀρχὰς λιμνάζοντος ὑγροῦ περικαέντος ὑπὸ τῆς ἡλιακῆς περιφορᾶς καὶ τοῦ λιπαροῦ ἐξατμισθέντος, εἰς ἁλυκίδα καὶ πικρίαν τὸ λοιπὸν ὑποστῆναι. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἱδρῶτα τῆς γῆς ἐκκαιομένης ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου διὰ τὴν ἐπὶ τὸ πλεῖον πίλησιν. Ἀντιφῶν ἱδρῶτα τοῦ θερμοῦ, ἐξ οὗ τὸ περιληφθὲν ὑγρὸν ἀπεκρίθη, τῷ καθεψηθῆναι παραλυκίσασα, ὅπερ ἐπὶ παντὸς ἱδρῶτος συμβαίνει. Μητρόδωρος διὰ τὸ διηθεῖσθαι διὰ τῆς γῆς μετειληφέναι τοῦ περὶ αὐτὴν πάχους, καθάπερ τὰ διὰ τῆς τέφρας ὑλιζόμενα. Οἱ ἀπὸ Πλάτωνος τοῦ στοιχειώδους ὕδατος τὸ μὲν ἐξ ἀέρος κατὰ περίψυξιν συνιστάμενον γλυκὺ γίνεσθαι, τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ γῆς κατὰ περίκαυσιν καὶ ἐκπύρωσιν ἀναθυμιώμενον ἁλμυρόν.» Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν καὶ περὶ θαλάσσης.
58. On the Inclination of the Earth: The others say the earth remains stationary. Philolaus the Pythagorean says it is carried around in a circle about the fire along an oblique circle, in like manner to the sun and moon. Heraclides of Pontus and Ecphantus the Pythagorean move the earth, but not in a translatory way, but in a rotatory way, like a wheel turned on an axle from west to east about its own center. Democritus says that at first the earth wandered on account of its smallness and lightness, but having become compacted and heavy over time, it came to rest. Hear these disagreements about the earth from the noble ones, and also those concerning the sea.
59. On the Sea, How It Was Formed and Why It Is Salty: Anaximander says the sea is a remnant of the primeval moisture; the greater part of this the fire dried up, and the part left behind changed due to the burning. Anaxagoras says that of the originally stagnant moisture, when it was burned around by the solar revolution and the oily part was evaporated, the remainder settled into saltiness and bitterness. Empedocles says it is the sweat of the earth being heated by the sun due to its greater compression. Antiphon says it is the sweat of the hot, from which the contained moisture was separated, having become somewhat salty by being boiled down, which happens with all sweat. Metrodorus says that because it is filtered through the earth, it has partaken of the thickness around it, just as things strained through ashes. The followers of Plato say that of elemental water, that which is formed from air by cooling becomes sweet, while that which is exhaled from the earth by burning and heating becomes salty. So much then concerning the sea.
ὅπως δὲ οἱ περὶ τοῦ παντὸς κόσμου οὐρανίων τε πέρι καὶ αἰθερίων καὶ τῆς τῶν ὅλων καταλήψεως φυσιολογεῖν ἐπαγγειλάμενοι οὐδὲ τὰ καθ' ἑαυτοὺς ᾔδεσαν, μάθοις ἂν ἐξ ὧν καὶ περὶ τούτων ὧδέ πως διαπεφωνήκασιν·
ξʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΜΕΡΩΝ ΤΗΣ ΨΥΧΗΣ «Πυθαγόρας, Πλάτων κατὰ μὲν τὸν ἀνωτάτω λόγον διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔχειν λογικόν, τὸ δὲ ἄλογον. κατὰ δὲ τὸ προσεχὲς καὶ ἀκριβὲς τριμερῆ· τὸ γὰρ ἄλογον διαιροῦσιν εἴς τε τὸ θυμικὸν καὶ τὸ ἐπιθυμητικόν. Οἱ Στωϊκοὶ ἐξ ὀκτὼ μερῶν συνεστάναι, πέντε μὲν τῶν αἰσθητικῶν, ὁρατικοῦ, ὀσφραντικοῦ, ἀκουστικοῦ, γευστικοῦ, ἁπτικοῦ, ἕκτου δὲ φωνητικοῦ, ἑβδόμου δὲ σπερματικοῦ, ὀγδόου δὲ αὐτοῦ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ, ἀφ' οὗ ταῦτα πάντα τέταται διὰ τῶν οἰκείων ὀργάνων, προσφερῶς ταῖς πολύποδος πλεκτάναις. Δημόκριτος, Ἐπίκουρος διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν, τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ἔχουσαν ἐν τῷ θώρακι καθιδρυμένον, τὸ δὲ ἄλογον καθ' ὅλην τὴν σύγκρισιν τοῦ σώματος διεσπαρμένον. Ὁ δὲ Δημόκριτος πάντα μετέχειν φύσει ψυχῆς ποιᾶς, καὶ τὰ νεκρὰ τῶν σωμάτων, διότι ἀφανῶς τινος θερμοῦ καὶ αἰσθητικοῦ μετέχει, τοῦ πλείονος διαπνεομένου.
60. On the Parts of the Soul: Pythagoras and Plato, according to the highest account, say the soul is bipartite: one part is rational, the other irrational. But according to the proximate and precise account, it is tripartite: for they divide the irrational into the spirited and the appetitive. The Stoics say it consists of eight parts: five of the senses—sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch—a sixth, the vocal, a seventh, the generative, and an eighth, the ruling part itself, from which all these extend through their proper organs, like the tentacles of a polyp. Democritus and Epicurus say the soul is bipartite, having the rational part seated in the chest, and the irrational scattered throughout the whole composition of the body. Democritus says that all things partake by nature of a certain soul, even dead bodies, because they invisibly partake of some heat and sensibility, the greater part being breathed out.
ξαʹ. ΠΕΡΙ ΗΓΕΜΟΝΙΚΟΥ Πλάτων, Δημόκριτος ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ κεφαλῇ. Στράτων ἐν μεσοφρύῳ. Ἐρασίστρατος περὶ τὴν μήνιγγα τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου, ἣν ἐπικρανίδα λέγει. Ἡρόφιλος ἐν τῇ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου κοιλίᾳ, ἥτις ἐστὶ βάσις. Παρμενίδης ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ θώρακι. Ἐπίκουρος, οἱ Στωϊκοὶ πάντες ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ καρδίᾳ. Διογένης ἐν τῇ ἀρτηριακῇ κοιλίᾳ τῆς καρδίας, ἥτις ἐστὶ πνευματική. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δὲ ἐν τῇ τοῦ αἵματος συστάσει. Οἱ δ' ἐν τῷ περικαρδίῳ ὑμένι· οἱ δ' ἐν τῷ διαφράγματι τῶν φρενῶν. τῶν νεωτέρων τινὲς διήκειν ἀπὸ κεφαλῆς μέχρι τοῦ διαφράγματος. Πυθαγόρας τὸ μὲν ζωτικὸν περὶ τὴν καρδίαν, τὸ δὲ λογικὸν καὶ νοερὸν περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν.» Τοσαῦτα μὲν δὴ καὶ τὰ περὶ τῶνδε. ἆρ' οὖν οὐκ ἐν δίκῃ σοι δοκοῦμεν κρίσει καὶ λογισμῷ τῆς τούτων ἁπάντων ἀνωφελοῦς καὶ πολυπλανοῦς ματαιοπονίας ἀνακεχωρηκέναι καὶ τῶν μὲν εἰρημένων μηδὲν πολυπραγμονεῖν μηδὲ γὰρ ὁρᾶν ἐξ αὐτῶν τὸ λυσιτελὲς καὶ αὐτόθεν συντεῖνον πρὸς ὠφέλειαν καὶ ἀγαθοῦ κτῆσιν ἀνθρώποις, μόνης δὲ τῆς ἀμφὶ τὸν πάντων δημιουργὸν θεὸν εὐσεβείας ἔχεσθαι καὶ διὰ σώφρονος βίου τῆς τε ἄλλης κατ' ἀρετὴν θεοφι15.61.12 λοῦς πολιτείας ἀρεσκόντως ζῆν σπουδάζειν τῷ ἐπὶ πάντων θεῷ; ἀλλ' εἰ καὶ σὺ βασκανίᾳ καὶ φθόνῳ τὴν ἀληθῆ μαρτυρίαν ἡμῖν προσέσθαι δι' ὄκνου φέρεις, φθάσει γέ σε πάλιν ὁ πάντων Ἑλλήνων σοφώτατος Σωκράτης τὰς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ψήφους φιλαλήθως ἐξενηνεγμένος. τοὺς γοῦν μετεωρολέσχας ἐκείνους μωραίνοντας ἀπεδείκνυε καὶ μηθὲν μαινομένων διαφέρειν ἔλεγεν, ἀπελέγχων αὐτοὺς διαρρήδην οὐ μόνον ὡς ἀνεφίκτων ὀρεγομένους, ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ἄχρηστα καὶ ἀνωφελῆ τῷ βίῳ κατατριβομένους.
61. On the Ruling Part: Plato and Democritus place it in the whole head. Strato in the mid-brow. Erasistratus around the membrane of the brain, which he calls the epicranis. Herophilus in the cavity of the brain, which is the base. Parmenides in the whole chest. Epicurus and all the Stoics in the whole heart. Diogenes in the arterial cavity of the heart, which is pneumatic. Empedocles in the constitution of the blood. Some in the pericardial membrane; others in the diaphragm of the midriff. Some of the more recent thinkers extend it from the head to the diaphragm. Pythagoras places the vital part around the heart, the rational and intellectual part around the head. So much then for these matters. Do we not seem to you, with good reason and judgment, to have withdrawn from the useless and manifoldly wandering vanity of all these, and to busy ourselves with none of the things mentioned, since we see in them nothing beneficial or directly conducive to advantage and the acquisition of good for men, but to cling only to piety toward the creator god of all, and through a temperate life and the rest of a life pleasing to God, lived in accordance with virtue, to strive to live acceptably to the God over all? But even if you, through malice and envy, are reluctant to accept the true testimony from us, the wisest of all Greeks, Socrates, will again anticipate you, having delivered the votes on our behalf with love of truth. For he showed those star-gazers to be foolish and said they differ in no way from madmen, refuting them explicitly not only as reaching for unattainable things, but also as wasting their time on things useless and unprofitable for life.
ταῦτα δέ σοι καὶ ὁ πρόσθεν μαρτυρήσει Ξενοφῶν, Σωκράτους ἑταίρων γνωριμώτατος, ὧδέ πη γράφων ἐν Ἀπομνημονεύμασιν·
ξβʹ. ΟΤΙ ΚΑΙ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ Ο ΣΟΦΩΤΑΤΟΣ ΣΩΚΡΑΤΗΣ ΤΟΥΣ ΕΠΙ ΤΗΙ ΤΩΝ ΠΡΟΕΙΡΗΜΕΝΩΝ ΦΥΣΙΟΛΟΓΙΑΙ ΜΕΓΑΛΑ ΦΥΣΩΝΤΑΣ ΜΩΡΑΙΝΟΝΤΑΣ ΑΠΕΔΕΙΚΝΥΕΝ ΩΣ ΠΕΡΙ ΑΧΡΗΣΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΒΙΩΙ ΚΑΙ ΑΚΑΤΑΛΗΠΤΑ ΚΑΤΑΤΡΙΒΟΜΕΝΟΥΣ «Οὐδεὶς δὲ πώποτε Σωκράτους οὐδὲν ἀσεβὲς οὔτε ἀνόσιον οὔτε πράττοντος εἶδεν οὔτε λέγοντος ἤκουσεν. οὐδὲ γὰρ περὶ τῆς τῶν ἁπάντων φύσεως ἢ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων, ὡς οἱ πλεῖστοι, διελέγετο, σκοπῶν ὅπως ὁ καλούμενος ὑπὸ τῶν σοφιστῶν κόσμος ἔχει καὶ τίσιν ἀνάγκαις ἕκαστα γίνεται τῶν οὐρα νίων, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοὺς φροντίζοντας τὰ τοιαῦτα μωραίνοντας ἀπεδείκνυε. καὶ πρῶτον μὲν αὐτῶν ἐσκόπει πότερά ποτε νομίσαντες ἱκανῶς ἤδη τὰ ἀνθρώπινα εἰδέναι ἔρχονται ἐπὶ τὸ περὶ τῶν τοιούτων φροντίζειν ἢ τὰ μὲν ἀνθρώπινα παρέντες, τὰ δαιμόνια δὲ σκοποῦντες ἡγοῦνται τὰ προσήκοντα πράττειν. ἐθαύμαζε δέ, εἰ μὴ φανερὸν αὐτοῖς ἐστιν ὅτι ταῦτα οὐ δυνατόν ἐστιν ἀνθρώποις εὑρεῖν, ἐπεὶ καὶ τοὺς μέγιστα φρονοῦντας ἐπὶ τῷ περὶ τούτων λέγειν οὐ ταὐτὰ δοξάζειν ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς μαινομένοις ὁμοίως διακεῖσθαι πρὸς ἀλλήλους. τῶν τε γὰρ μαινομένων τοὺς μὲν οὐδὲ τὰ δεινὰ δεδιέναι, τοὺς δὲ τὰ μὴ φοβερὰ φοβεῖσθαι· καὶ τοῖς μὲν οὐδ' ἐν ὄχλῳ δοκεῖν αἰσχρὸν εἶναι λέγειν ἢ ποιεῖν ὁτιοῦν, τοῖς δὲ οὐδ' ἐξιτητέον εἰς ἀνθρώπους εἶναι δοκεῖν· καὶ τοὺς μὲν οὔθ' ἱερὸν οὔτε βωμὸν οὔτ' ἄλλο τῶν θείων οὐδὲν τιμᾶν, τοὺς δὲ καὶ λίθους καὶ
These things also the aforementioned Xenophon, the most renowned of Socrates' companions, will testify for you, writing somewhere in his Memorabilia as follows:
62. That Socrates, the wisest of the Greeks, showed that those who puffed themselves up greatly over the physiology of the aforementioned matters were foolish, wasting their time on things useless for life and incomprehensible. "No one ever saw Socrates doing or heard him saying anything impious or unholy. For he did not discuss the nature of all things or other matters, as most do, inquiring how the so-called cosmos by the sophists is constituted and by what necessities each of the heavenly phenomena occurs; on the contrary, he showed that those who concern themselves with such things are foolish. And first he considered whether they come to concern themselves with such matters because they think they already know human affairs sufficiently, or whether, neglecting human affairs and investigating divine ones, they suppose they are doing what is appropriate. He was amazed if it was not clear to them that these things are impossible for humans to discover, since even those who think most highly of themselves for speaking about these matters do not hold the same opinions as one another, but are disposed towards each other like madmen. For of madmen, some fear nothing terrible, while others fear things that are not fearful; and to some it seems not shameful to say or do anything even in a crowd, while to others it seems one should not even go out among people; and some honor neither temple nor altar nor any other divine thing, while others even stones and
ξύλα τὰ τυχόντα καὶ θηρία σέβεσθαι. τῶν τε περὶ τῆς τῶν πάντων φύσεως μεριμνώντων τοῖς μὲν δοκεῖν ἓν μόνον τὸ ὂν εἶναι, τοῖς δὲ ἄπειρα τὸ πλῆθος· καὶ τοῖς μὲν ἀεὶ πάντα κινεῖσθαι, τοῖς δὲ οὐδὲν ἄν ποτε κινηθῆναι· καὶ τοῖς μὲν ἅπαντα γίγνεσθαί τε καὶ ἀπόλλυσθαι, τοῖς δὲ οὔτ' ἂν γενέσθαι ποτὲ οὐδὲν οὔτε ἀπολέσθαι. ἐσκόπει δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν καὶ τάδε· ἆρ' ὥσπερ οἱ τἀνθρώπινα μανθάνοντες ἡγοῦνται τοῦθ' ὅ τι ἂν μάθωσιν ἑαυτοῖς τε καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅτῳ ἂν βούλωνται ποιήσειν, οὕτω καὶ οἱ τὰ θεῖα ζητοῦντες νομίζουσιν, ἐπειδὰν γνῶσιν αἷς ἀνάγκαις ἕκαστα γίγνεται, ποιήσειν ὅταν βούλωνται καὶ ἀνέμους καὶ ὕδατα καὶ ὥρας καὶ ὅτου ἂν ἄλλου δέωνται τῶν τοιούτων; ἢ τοιοῦτο μὲν οὐδὲν οὐδ' ἐλπίζουσιν, ἀρκεῖ δ' αὐτοῖς γνῶναι μόνον ᾗ τῶν τοιούτων ἕκαστα γίγνεται; περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ταῦτα πραγματευομένων τοιαῦτα ἔλεγεν· αὐτὸς δὲ περὶ τῶν ἀνθρωπείων ἀεὶ διελέγετο, σκοπῶν τί εὐσεβές, τί ἀσεβές· τί καλόν, τί αἰσχρόν· τί δίκαιον, τί ἄδικον· τί σωφροσύνη, τί μανία.» Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ὁ Σωκράτης. μετὰ δὲ αὐτὸν οἱ περὶ Ἀρίστιππον τὸν Κυρηναῖον, ἔπειθ' ὕστερον οἱ περὶ Ἀρίστωνα τὸν Χῖον ἐπεχείρησαν λέγειν ὡς δέοι μόνα τὰ ἠθικὰ φιλοσοφεῖν· εἶναι γὰρ δὴ ταῦτα μὲν δυνατὰ καὶ ὠφέλιμα, τοὺς μέντοι περὶ τῆς φύσεως λόγους πᾶν τοὐναντίον μήτε κατα15.62.8 ληπτοὺς εἶναι μήτε καὶ εἰ ὀφθεῖεν, ὄφελος ἔχειν τι. μηδὲν γὰρ ἡμῖν ἔσεσθαι πλέον, ἀλλ' οὐδ' εἰ μετεωρότεροι τοῦ Περσέως ἀρθέντες ὑπέρ τε πόντου χεῦμ' ὑπέρ τε Πλειάδα αὐτοῖς τοῖς ὄμμασι κατίδοιμεν τὸν πάντα κόσμον καὶ τὴν τῶν ὄντων φύσιν, ἥτις δή ποτέ ἐστιν·
they worship ordinary pieces of wood and wild beasts. And concerning those who investigate the nature of all things, some think that being is one only, others that it is infinite in number; and some that everything is always in motion, others that nothing can ever be moved; and some that all things come to be and perish, others that nothing ever comes to be or perishes. He also considered about them the following: whether, just as those who learn human affairs think that whatever they learn they will be able to do for themselves and for whomever else they wish, so also those who investigate divine matters suppose that, when they know by what necessities each thing comes to be, they will be able to produce winds and waters and seasons and whatever else of that sort they need? Or do they hope for nothing of the kind, and is it enough for them merely to know how each of such things comes to be? So then, concerning those who occupy themselves with these matters, he spoke thus; but he himself always discoursed about human affairs, considering what is pious, what impious; what is noble, what base; what is just, what unjust; what is temperance, what madness. These things then Socrates said. And after him, those around Aristippus the Cyrenean, and later those around Aristo the Chian, attempted to say that one ought to philosophize only about ethical matters; for these matters are indeed possible and beneficial, while discourses about nature are on the contrary neither comprehensible nor, even if they were seen, of any benefit. For we would have nothing more, not even if, raised higher than Perseus above the stream of the sea and above the Pleiades, we should behold with our own eyes the whole cosmos and the nature of things, whatever it is.
οὐ γὰρ δὴ διά γε τοῦτο φρονιμωτέρους ἢ δικαιοτέρους ἢ ἀνδρειοτέρους ἢ σωφρονεστέρους ἡμᾶς ἔσεσθαι καὶ μὴν οὐδὲ ἰσχυροὺς ἢ κα15.62.10 λοὺς ἢ πλουσίους, ὧν χωρὶς οὐχ οἷόν τε εὐδαιμονεῖν. ὅθεν ὀρθῶς εἶπε Σωκράτης καὶ λίαν καλῶς, ὅτι τῶν ὄντων τὰ μὲν ὑπὲρ ἡμᾶς εἴη, τὰ δὲ οὐδὲν πρὸς ἡμᾶς· εἶναι γὰρ τὰ φυσικὰ μὲν ὑπὲρ ἡμᾶς, τὰ δὲ μετὰ τὸν θάνατον οὐδὲν πρὸς ἡμᾶς, μόνα δὲ πρὸς ἡμᾶς τὰ ἀνθρώπινα. ταύτη δὲ καὶ χαίρειν αὐτὸν εἰπόντα τῇ Ἀναξαγόρου καὶ Ἀρχελάου φυσιολογίᾳ ζητεῖν ὅττι οἱ ἐν μεγάροισι κακόν τ' ἀγαθόν τε τέτυκται. καὶ ἄλλως δὲ εἶναι τοὺς φυσικοὺς λόγους οὐ χαλεποὺς οὐδὲ ἀδυνάτους μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀσεβεῖς καὶ τοῖς νόμοις ὑπεναντίους καὶ μηδὲν πρὸς ἀνθρώπινον ἦθος καὶ κόσμον βίου τοῦ καθ' ἡμᾶς συντείνοντας· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἀξιοῦν μηδ' εἶναι θεοὺς τὸ παράπαν, τοὺς δὲ τὸ ἄπειρον ἢ τὸ ὂν ἢ τὸ ἕν, καὶ πάντα μᾶλλον ἢ τοὺς νομιζομένους· τήν τ' αὖ διαφωνίαν παμπόλλην ὅσην· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἄπειρον ἀποφαίνειν τὸ πᾶν, τοὺς δὲ πεπερασμένον, καὶ τοὺς μὲν ἀξιοῦν ἅπαντα κινεῖσθαι, τοὺς δὲ καθάπαξ μηδέν. καὶ μὴν εἴ τι καὶ ἄλλο, πάντων ἄριστά μοι δοκεῖ περὶ τούτων αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς Σίλλοις καὶ ὁ Φλιάσιος Τίμων εἰρηκέναι τάδε· τίς γὰρ τούσδ' ὀλοῇ ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι; Ἠχοῦς σύνδρομος ὄχλος· ὁ γὰρ σιγῶσι χολωθεὶς νοῦσον ἐπ' ἀνέρας ὦρσε λάλην, ὀλέκοντο δὲ πολλοί. ὁρᾷς ὡς ἤδη καὶ ἀλλήλους σκώπτουσιν οἱ γενναῖοι; τὴν γοῦν πρὸς ἀλλήλους φιλονεικίαν αὐτῶν τάς τε μάχας καὶ τὰς διαστάσεις ἔτι πρὸς τοῖς εἰρημένοις ὁ δηλωθεὶς ἀνὴρ τοῦτον ὑπογράφει τὸν τρόπον·
For it is not by this that we will become wiser or more just or more courageous or more temperate, nor indeed stronger or more beautiful or wealthier, without which it is not possible to be happy. Hence Socrates spoke rightly and very well, that of existing things some are above us, others are nothing to us: for natural things are above us, while things after death are nothing to us, and only human things are to us. And on this account he said he took delight in the natural philosophy of Anaxagoras and Archelaus, seeking what good and evil are wrought in the halls. And besides, natural discourses are not only difficult and impossible, but also impious and contrary to the laws, and contribute nothing to human character and the order of life as we know it: for some maintain that there are no gods at all, others that the infinite or being or the one, and everything rather than the recognized gods; and there is also the vast disagreement: for some declare the universe to be infinite, others finite, and some maintain that everything is in motion, others that nothing is. And indeed, if anything else, it seems to me that about these matters Timon of Phlius has spoken best of all in his Silloi, as follows: For who has brought these together to fight in destructive strife? A crowd that runs with Echo; for he, angered by their silence, roused a talkative disease upon men, and many perished. Do you see how already the noble ones mock each other? For their mutual contentiousness, their battles and divisions, in addition to what has been said, the aforementioned man describes in this manner:
φοιτᾷ δὲ βροτολοιγὸς ἔρις κενεὸν λελακυῖα, νείκης ἀνδροφόνοιο κασιγνήτη καὶ ἔριθος, ἥ τ' ἀλαὴ περὶ πάντα κυλίνδεται, αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα ἔς τε βροτοὺς στήριξε κάρη καὶ ἐς ἐλπίδα βάλλει. Ἀλλὰ γὰρ καὶ τῆς τῶνδε πρὸς σφᾶς αὐτοὺς ἀποδεδειγμένης στάσεώς τε καὶ μάχης τῆς τε μηδὲν ἡμῖν προσηκούσης, περιττῆς δὲ ἄλλως καὶ οὐ γνωστῆς ἀνθρώποις φυσιολογίας τε καὶ φιλοσοφίας τῆς τε ἀθέου καὶ ψευδοῦς παιδείας τε καὶ μαθήσεως τῶν τε λοιπῶν ἁπάντων, ἐν οἷς εἰσέτι νῦν ἀποσεμνύνονται φιλοσόφων παῖδες, ἀπεληλεγμένων οὐχ ἡμετέραις, ταῖς δ' οἰκείαις αὐτῶν ἀποδείξεσιν, οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ τῆς αἰτίας εἰς φανερὸν τεθείσης, δι' ἣν τὰ τῶνδε ἀποστραφέντες τὰ Ἑβραίων λόγια προτετιμήκαμεν, τὰ μὲν
τῆς Εὐαγγελικῆς Προπαρασκευῆς ἐν τούτοις ἡμῖν περιγεγράφθω· τὰ δὲ τῆς ἐντελεστέρας πραγματείας, τῆς κατὰ τὴν Εὐαγγελικὴν Ἀπόδειξιν, ἤδη λοιπὸν ἐπισκεπτέον ἀφ' ἑτέρας λόγων ἀρχῆς, τῆς δὴ λειπούσης τῷ προβλήματι, τὴν διδασκαλίαν ποιησομένοις. λείπει δὲ ἄρα πρὸς τοὺς ἐκ περιτομῆς ἐπιμεμψαμένους ἀποκρίνασθαι, τί δή ποτε ἀλλόφυλοι ὄντες καὶ ἀλλογενεῖς ταῖς αὐτῶν βίβλοις ἀποχρώμεθα, μηδὲν ἡμῖν, ὡς ἂν αὐτοὶ φαῖεν, προσηκούσαις· ἢ τί δὴ τὰ παρ' αὐτοῖς ἀσπαζόμενοι λόγια οὐχὶ καὶ τὸν βίον ἀκόλουθον τῷ παρ' αὐτοῖς παρέχομεν νόμῳ.
But the man-destroying strife, empty-voiced, rages, the sister and companion of man-slaying conflict, which rolls blindly over all things, and then fixes its head among mortals and casts them into hope. However, since the demonstration of their internal discord and battle, and of the natural philosophy and philosophy that is nothing to us, but is superfluous and unknowable to humans, and of the godless and false education and learning, and of all the rest in which the children of philosophers still take pride, has been refuted not by our own arguments but by their own proofs, and since the reason has been made clear why we have turned away from these things and preferred the Hebrew scriptures, let the first part of the Evangelical Preparation be concluded here. The more complete work, that of the Evangelical Demonstration, must now be considered from another starting point, which is lacking for the problem, as we will provide the teaching. What remains is to answer those of the circumcision who reproach us, asking why, being foreigners and of another race, we use their books, which have nothing to do with us, as they would say, or why, if we embrace their scriptures, we do not also live according to the law that they follow.