On the Primary and Secondary Totems of the Naxi People
This article examines the primary (original) and secondary (derived) totems of the Naxi people, based on decades of fieldwork with Dongba priests, storytellers, and folk singers. The author argues that Naxi clans originally worshipped animal totems—snake, frog, and monkey—based on mythic kinship ties (snake and monkey as half-brothers to humans; frog as maternal uncle). By comparing folk myths with Dongba scriptural narratives about the mythical creature "Shu" (a composite being with frog head, human body, and snake tail), the author shows that folk totem myths represent the original, grassroots cultural matrix, while Dongba priests later synthesized and transformed these animal totems into "Shu," a secondary totem symbolizing the collective will of the tribal confederation as Naxi society evolved from clan-based to tribal organization. This transformation reflects Dongba religion's role in reshaping folk culture into institutionalized religious doctrine, marking a shift from egalitarian sibling-like human-totem relationships to a hierarchical, deified composite totem.
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